ABSTRACT
Local anaesthesia is seldom used in birds. Survival and recovery rates of birds in pain are much lower than those receiving effective analgesia. Butorphanol is recommended for opioid analgesia in birds. There are two underlying principles to consider when developing an analgesic plan for a patient. These are: pre-emptive analgesia; and multimodal therapy. The most commonly used analgesics in avian practice are opioids and Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Local anaesthesia may also be used in certain circumstances. There are four fundamental differences between avian and mammalian anaesthesia: the anatomy of the bird; its metabolism; its tendency to lose heat quickly; and finally, that most birds requiring anaesthesia are chronically ill. Monitoring of anaesthesia is vital in avian surgery. Capnography is becoming recognised as an essential means of monitoring avian anaesthesia. Hypotension occurs after prolonged or deep anaesthesia or severe blood loss.
