ABSTRACT
This chapter summarizes concepts, theories, and research on individual differences (ID) that are more or less static in the language learner. It examines IDs that are relatively dynamic and therefore amenable to change via instruction or some intentional educational strategy. Language learning motivation is seen as a conative variable that can be manipulated by educational planning, instructional techniques, materials design, and formative assessment strategies such that a student can be encouraged to engage in language study. Motivation has arguably been the most researched dimension of individual variance in language learning. The inconsistency of findings in learning strategies research—as well as ongoing conceptual and theoretical critique of learning strategy constructs—has led some researchers to abandon the notion of learning strategies altogether, most notably in favor of self-regulation theory. Language learning research on learner beliefs attempts to explore the commonly held view that learner opinions about aspects of the language learning experience can influence learning outcomes.
