ABSTRACT
Values of actions are obtained by determining characteristic or representative values of loads or forces. Ideally, loads applied to a structure during its working life, should be analysed statistically and a characteristic load is determined. The characteristic load might then be defined as the load above which no more than 5% of the loads exceed, as shown in Fig. 3.1. However, data is not available and the characteristic value of an action is given as a mean value, an upper value or a nominal value.
