ABSTRACT
While most published models have focused on isolated joints or joint complexes, some biomechanical models of the upper extremity have included the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. Raikova (1992) formulated an optimisation model for predicting muscle forces in the upper extremity that included the glenohumeral, elbow (flexion/extension and supination/pronation), and wrist (radial/ulnar deviation and flexion/extension) joints. Lemay and Crago (1996) developed a model to simulate forearm and wrist movements using a sophisticated muscle modelling approach. Hogan (1985) has proposed biomechanical models of the upper extremity based on joint stiffness considerations. Buchner et al. (1985) formulated a sagittal five-link model that included the forearm and multi-segment finger representation and analysed it for controllability. Detailed models of the whole arm have not been extensively used in ergonomics, but whole body models that include arms are used in ergonomics practice and applied research.
