ABSTRACT
There are numerous definitions of culture in the contexts of organizations and national societies. They range from the concrete to the abstract, but at their core they all tend to refer to shared meanings and values. The layers of an onion are often presented as an analogy for culture; some aspects of culture lie on the surface while others are deeper. Some attributes of culture, such as tangible products and artefacts, are explicit - they are easy to observe but may be difficult to interpret. Other attributes of culture are less tangible, comprising norms and values, and basic assumptions; these implicit attributes of culture cannot be observed directly, that is without the construction of data collection instruments. Interpretation of research data can be difficult and confusing because different authors define culture in different ways. The discussion that follows will consider the contrasting views of cross-cultural differences proposed by Geert Hofstede, and Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner. A framework for analysis of cross-cultural congruence, and its possible application to the international school, will also be considered.
