ABSTRACT
In the previous three chapters, we reviewed three particular applied issues: criterion-referenced testing, behavioral observation, and item bias. All three issues are directly related to the core theoretical problems of reliability and validity, which have been the central concern of this book. Specifically, for criterion-referenced testing and behavioral observation, additional considerations of reliability and validity, beyond those of conventional norm-referenced, paper-and-pencil tests are needed. Test bias is a specific, direct, and important threat to the validity of score interpretation and use.
