ABSTRACT
Empirical classroom research began in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. There was optimism that emerging methodologies would produce results that transformed educational practice. For example, one investigator’s use of stenographic recordings to study classrooms (Stevens, 1910) initiated a methodology used for several decades (Hoetker & Ahlbrand, 1969) and anticipated electronic technologies in use today. Yet for all the optimism generated by such methodological advances, 20 years later Barr’s (1929) examination of stenographic records revealed that good teachers, as in Stevens’ time, were just as likely as poor teachers to be relying on “fact” rather than “thought” questions. Two decades of original empirical research seemingly had no impact on the much criticized recitation teaching that had been the focus of research and reform since Stevens’ pioneering studies.
