ABSTRACT
Module 31: Clause combining 272
31.1 The complex sentence 272 31.2 The sentence as an orthographic and rhetorical unit 274
31.2.1 Clausal and non-clausal material 274
31.3 Degrees of dependency between clauses 275
Module 32: Types of relationship between clauses 277
32.1 Syntactic relationships and semantic relationships 277 32.2 Syntactic relationships of equivalence: coordination and apposition 278 32.3 Syntactic relationships of non-equivalence: dependency and subordination 279 32.4 The semantics of clause combining: types of expansion 279
Module 33: Elaborating the message 281
33.1 Apposition and elaboration in finite clauses 281
33.1.1 Clarifying connectives: restating, exemplifying and upgrading 282
33.2 Sentence relative clauses 283 33.3 Non-finite supplementive clauses: specifying and commenting 284
Module 34: Extending the message 285
34.1 The semantics of coordination 285
34.1.1 Addition 285 34.1.2 Variation 286 34.1.3 Alternation 286 34.1.4 Explanation 286
34.2 Contrastive dependency: while, whereas, but for the fact that 287 34.3 Besides, instead of, without + non-finites 288 34.4 Implicit meanings of -ing supplementives 288
35.1 Coordination or apposition + circumstance 290
35.1.1 Inferred meanings of ‘and’ 291 35.1.2 Similar meanings expressed by coordinators and subordinators 292
35.2 Finite dependent clauses of time, contingency and manner 292
35.2.1 Finite dependent clauses and subordinators 292
35.3 Pragmatic conjunction 294 35.4 Non-finite clauses expressing circumstantial meanings 296
35.4.1 Explicit markers of circumstantial meanings 296 35.4.2 Verb forms as circumstantial markers 297
35.5 Discourse connectivity and cohesion: Initial vs final circumstantial clauses 298
Module 36: Reporting speech and thought 299
36.1 Direct and indirect reporting 299 36.2 Direct reporting of speech and thought 300 36.3 Backshift in indirect speech and thought reporting 303 36.4 Reported offers, suggestions and commands 305 36.5 Clause type in the reported clause 306 36.6 Free direct speech and free indirect speech 307 36.7 Free indirect thought 308
Further reading 309 Exercises 309
31.1 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The highest grammatical unit is traditionally called the sentence. Three possible types of sentence are usually distinguished:
• The simple sentence consists basically of one independent clause, as in Sam bought the tickets. The independent clause is the unit we consider primary, in that it comprises minimal grammatical completeness and unity.
