ABSTRACT
Module 41: Expressing location in time through the verb: tense 352
41.1 The meaning of tense 352
41.1.1 Present tense, Past tense and future time 353 41.1.2 Stative and dynamic uses of verbs 354
41.2 Basic meanings of the Present tense 355
41.2.1 The Instantaneous Present 355 41.2.2 The State Present 355 41.2.3 The Habitual Present 356
41.3 Secondary meanings of the Present tense: reference to past events 356 41.4 Basic meanings of the Past tense 358 41.5 Secondary meanings of the Past tense: present and future reference 358 41.6 Referring to future events 359
41.6.1 ‘Safe’ predictions 359 41.6.2 Programmed events 359 41.6.3 Intended events 360 41.6.4 Imminent events 360 41.6.5 Future anterior events 360
Module 42: Past events and present time connected: Present Perfect and Past Perfect 361
42.1 Present Perfect aspect and Past tense compared: anteriority vs definite time 361 42.2 Time adjuncts and the Present Perfect aspect 363 42.3 Current relevance 364 42.4 Functions and discourse interpretations of the Present Perfect 364
42.4.1 The experiential Perfect 364 42.4.2 The continuous Perfect 365 42.4.3 Implied meanings of the Present Perfect 365
42.5 Expressing more distanced events: the Past Perfect 366 42.6 Non-finite Perfect forms 368
43.1 The meaning of aspect 369 43.2 Lexical aspect of English verbs 370 43.3 Grammatical aspects in English 372 43.4 The meaning of the Progressive 373 43.5 Lexical aspect and the Progressive 373
43.5.1 States and the Progressive 373 43.5.2 Punctual occurrences and the Progressive 374 43.5.3 Verbs with no end-point and the Progressive 374 43.5.4 End-point-completion verbs and the Progressive 375
43.6 The discourse functions of the Progressive 375 43.7 Present Perfect and Progressive aspects combined 376 43.8 Habituality: past habit or state 377
Module 44: Expressing attitudes towards the event: modality 379
44.1 The meaning and functions of modality 379 44.2 Realisations of modal meanings 380 44.3 Extrinsic modality: modal certainty, probability and possibility 381
44.3.1 Modal certainty: will, must, be bound to 381 44.3.2 Probability or ‘reasonable inference’: should, ought 383 44.3.3 Extrinsic possibility: may, might, could 383
44.4 Structural features of extrinsic modality 385
44.4.1 Summary of extrinsic modal and lexical-modal auxiliaries and their meanings 385
44.5 Features of intrinsic modality: volition, obligation, necessity, permission 385
44.5.1 Volition: willingness and intention: will, shall, ‘ll 386 44.5.2 Inescapable obligation and necessity: must, have to, have got to,
gotta, shall 387 44.5.3 Negation of the modals must and may 388 44.5.4 Non-binding obligation: should, ought 390
44.6 Dynamic modality: Possibility, ability, permission, propensity: can, be able, could, will, would, may 390
44.7 Hypothetical uses of the modals 393
44.7.1 Summary of intrinsic modals and modal meanings 393
Further reading 394 Exercises 394
41.1 THE MEANING OF TENSE
Tense is the grammatical expression of the location of events in time. It anchors (or ‘grounds’) an event to the speaker’s experience of the world by relating the event time
SUMMARY
1 Tense is the grammatical expression of the location of events in time. It anchors an event to the speaker’s experience of the world by relating the event time to a point of reference. The universal, unmarked reference point is the moment of speaking – speech time. In narrative, a point in past time is usually taken as the reference point.
