ABSTRACT
Nowadays, the presence of PhACs, PCPs and EDCs in drinking water samples remains unregulated. Article 16 of the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC (European Parliament, 2000) sets out a strategy for dealing with the chemical pollution of water; the first step of this strategy is a list of priority substances adopted in the Decision 2455/2001/EC, identifying 33 substances of priority concern at the community level (European Parliament, 2001). A more recent proposal aims to ensure a high level of protection against risks to or via the aquatic environment stemming from these 33 priority substances and certain other pollutants by setting environmental quality standards (European Parliament, 2006). In consequence, programs of excellent water quality in the Netherlands have been implemented. The vision of the Dutch water companies is that there is a need for constant improved water quality to keep the Dutch inhabitants’ confidence up for their direct consumption of high-quality tap water instead of bottled water. Based on that vision, a large number of research projects have been started in the European Union (EU). EU projects aimed at high-quality potable water are the Delft Cluster and Techneau projects; both include work packages that investigate options to deal with the presence of emerging organic contaminants in water. The Q21-PODW (Production of Outstanding Drinking Water for the 21st century) was part of one EU project started at Delft University of Technology in 2006. In order to address the potential environmental and health impacts of endocrine disruption, the European Commission adopted a Communication to the Council and European Parliament, entitled “Community Strategy for Endocrine Disrupters” in December 1999 (European Parliament, 1999). This strategy sets out a number of actions relating to the identification of substances, monitoring, research, international coordination and communication to the public. On 26 October 2000, the European Parliament adopted a resolution on endocrine disrupters, emphasising the application of the precautionary principle. The epidemiological evidence of potential relationships between exposure to chemical substances and endocrine disruption is a general cause for concern. Although a considerable amount of research is still required to ascertain the scope and seriousness of endocrine disruption, including confirmation of epidemiological results, it is essential that the Commission adopt a strategy that takes into account the current concern on the basis of the precautionary principle (Ibid). REACH is the new European regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 on chemical substances. REACH stands for Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of CHemicals. REACH allows the evaluation of substances of concern and
foresees an authorisation system for the use of substances of very high concern. This applies to substances that cause cancer, infertility, genetic mutations or birth defects, and to those which are persistent and accumulate in the environment. REACH requires a registration, over a period of 11 years, of some 30,000 chemical substances. The registration process requires the manufacturers and importers to generate data for all chemicals substances produced or imported into the EU above one tonne per year. The registrants must also identify appropriate risk management measures and communicate them to the users. The supervision of compliance with REACH comes under the responsibility of each member state. Belgium and the Netherlands have already enforced its fulfillment. In the Netherlands, the Dutch Labour Inspectorate, the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment Inspectorate (VROM Inspectorate) and the Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority are dealing with the enforcement of REACH at different levels. The Labour Inspectorate supervises the professional users of substances and preparations. The Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority supervises producers, importers and dealers in preparations and items for consumers. The VROM Inspectorate supervises producers, importers and dealers of substances, preparations and items for professional use. In the United States, the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974) required the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish maximum levels for various drinking water contaminants including some pesticides known to have endocrine disruptive activity. According to Snyder et al. (2003), endocrine disruption was not specifically named in any United States legislation until 1995. Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act mandated that chemicals and formulations be screened for potential endocrine activity before they are manufactured or used in certain processes where drinking water and/or food could become contaminated. Thus, the EPA was required to develop a screening program, using appropriate, validated test systems and other scientifically relevant information to determine whether certain substances may have an endocrine effect on wildlife and humans (EPA, 1998). Nonetheless, the legislation regulated only those industries producing or using raw chemicals, and not the water industry. As a result, legislation will have no immediate effect on water and wastewater treatment regulations. There are currently no federal regulations for pharmaceuticals in drinking or natural waters. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires ecological testing and evaluation of a pharmaceutical only if an environmental concentration in water or soil is expected to exceed 1mg/L or 100mg/kg, respectively (FDA, 1998).
