ABSTRACT
This chapter describes the physical characteristics of common surveying instruments, the instrumental errors affecting the precision and accuracy of measurements, and instrument calibration and adjustment. It discusses the function, operation, and application of the instruments. The chapter also discusses field measurements using electronic distance measuring instru-ments involve centering the instruments and reflectors, observing the slope distances and vertical angles, and making corrections for slope and the various instrumental and natural errors. It explains the purpose of inverting the telescope for half of the observations is to compensate for lack of perpendicularity between the horizontal and the vertical axes, and between the line of sight and the horizontal axis. The student of surveying should be familiar with several miscellaneous operations employed in field surveying. Field communication can become a problem, especially when there is noise from construction or traffic, when the distance between the instrument operator and other personnel becomes long, and when visual contact is difficult to maintain.
