ABSTRACT
Having thrice annexed parts of Poland with large Jewish populations, between 1772 and 1795, Czarist Russia emerged as a country with more Jews than the rest of Europe combined. 1 But that made no difference to the status of Jews there. They were confined to the ghettos and villages of the ‘pale of settlement’ as before, and denied citizenship. The situation changed during the rule of Alexander II, which began in 1855. Due to his liberal policies Jews became active in law, banking, medicine, industry and architecture. His assassination in 1881 resulted in a reign of terror being unleashed by his successor, Alexander III. An officially inspired pogrom in 1882 caused immense suffering. Jews started migrating in large numbers. They all went westwards, except for a small proportion who headed for Palestine. 2
