ABSTRACT
Coerced labour proved remarkably durable, despite a sustained liberal challenge from the mid-eighteenth century. This longevity is puzzling at first sight, as obtaining labour by force had many drawbacks. Paying in advance for slaves exacerbated the need for capital, always expensive on the frontier. Substantial recruitment costs were lost when labourers died or fled, which happened most often on arrival or soon after. Low productivity sprang from a mixture of demoralisation and active resistance, and the cost of supervision was correspondingly high. Such disadvantages more than offset low or non-existent payment, the ability to assign workers to any task, and the acquisition of skills through long residence (Clarence-Smith 1990).
