ABSTRACT
Christianity was born and developed in a hostile environment. Though pregnantwith a great deal of theological and spiritual meaning for many throughout the ages, the cross nonetheless symbolized the insoluble conflict between Christianity and paganism already present in the life and teachings of Jesus (Meyer 1992). Hostilities described in the Acts of the Apostles between Jews and Christ-followers preceded the greater conflict between the early church and gentiles in the GraecoRoman world during the first-century missionary expansions (Frend 1984: 11-109; Chadwick 1992). The delineation of correct (orthodox) doctrines in the face of heretical teachings, and the definition of a canon of scripture, were two of the major challenges of the church beginning (but not ending) in the second century (González 1970; Pelikan 1971; Chadwick 1993: 32-83; Kelly 1978: 52-82; McDonald 1995). As these issues of identity were being clarified, both the pagan intelligentsia and the political administration of the Roman empire were able, beginning with Nero (54-68), to distinguish between Judaism and the Christ-movement as separate religious entities (Suetonius, Caesar 16.25; Tacitus, Annals 15.44; Griffin 1984; Harnack 1972). Owing to such factors as the church’s continued growth in the provinces, the belief in the deity of Christ, and the exclusiveness of the Christians (which appeared strange and unacceptable to the tolerant polytheists of the empire), an increasingly inimical attitude towards Christianity became inevitable (Chadwick 1993: 66-131; Daniélou 1973). Christian leaders were now thrown on the defensive, and began to write apologies which had the twofold objective of offering reasonable explanations of doctrines and practices, and evangelistically attempting to convince the pagans that Christianity is the only true religion (see Chapter 21 of this volume and Frend 1984: 229-70). Thus by the second century there emerged such erudite apologists as Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and the Alexandrian theologians Clement and Origen (Kelly 1978: 83-108; Chadwick 1993: 54-115). As we shall see, the latter wrote a refutation of the first work published against Christianity, The True Discourse by Celsus.
