ABSTRACT
The efferent nervous activity of the ANS is regulated by several regions in the central nervous system (CNS):
• Hypothalamus and brainstem • Cerebral cortex and limbic system • Spinal cord
Many homeostatic control centers are located in the
hypothalamus
and the
brainstem
. Through their effects on the ANS, these regions of the brain work together to control cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive activity. The
cerebral cortex
and the
limbic system
also influence ANS activities associated with emotional responses by way of hypothalamic-brainstem pathways. For example, blushing during an embarrassing moment, a response most likely originating in the frontal association cortex, involves vasodilation
of blood vessels to the face. Finally, many autonomic reflexes, such as the micturition reflex (urination), are mediated at the level of the
spinal cord
. Although these reflexes are subject to influence from higher nervous centers, they may occur without input from the brain.
