ABSTRACT
Future events were largely seen to be in the hands of the gods or God; nevertheless, settlements were usually sited to minimise known recurrent hazards such as avalanche, flood, and piracy and so on. People have always been aware of threats. History and palaeoecology can be useful to forewarn of risks and suggest how to construct contingency plans. A hazard is a potential threat; a threat is when there is reasonably clear danger. A risk is the probability that a hazard will happen or, more precisely, the likelihood that an event will coincide with elements which can be affected. People differ in their perception of threats: they may range from disinterested or complacent, even in the face of significant risk of major hazard, to alert and reactive. Access to opportunities to overcome threats is crucial, and some groups have far more access than others, usually the rich.
