M

Magic. Ancient competitors relied on innate ability, expended time, effort and money, and prayed to the gods for success. When necessary, they cheated. Some, not content to improve their own chances, sought to reduce others’ with the help of magicians. These often employed binding spells (Greek katadesmoi, Latin defixiones), usually inscribed (sometimes with depictions of their intended victims, or symbols) on small, thin pieces of lead, often rolled up or pierced, which called on evil spirits to hinder and harm rivals. Most agonistic binding spells which survive concern chariot races in both the Greek and Roman worlds of the second century ce and after. Naming charioteers and their horses, they ask demons to prevent teams from leaving the starting stalls or, if they do get away, to bring them to ruin on the course. Some have been found buried near the starting area or at turnposts, though points of easy access to the underworld, graves and bodies of water (including drains and wells), are the common sites. (One Egyptian recipe recommends drowning a cat in a bucket of water and stuffing it with tablets. Do not try this at home.) As a defence against such tactics, charioteers commissioned victory charms and bedecked themselves and their horses with gemstones with apotraic devices, necklaces of wolves’ teeth, and papyrus sheets covered with magical signs. Spells were also directed at runners – they are to be kept

from sleep, food and drink before a race – and wrestlers.