ABSTRACT
European influence upon Iran during the nineteenth century extended beyond the presence of missionaries, diplomats and medical doctors. A more powerful catalyst of change was the abundance of ideas that was contained in printed books, ranging from biographies of important monarchs and rulers, history, medicine, technology and literature that was designed to entertain the reader. The Iranian students who had been sent to Europe were among the first to acquaint themselves with such writings, and in the course of the nineteenth century increasing numbers within Iran had access to Western literature and social sciences through Persian translations.1 Increasing knowledge of Europe and its public institutions contributed to the movement for socio-political reform which was expressed in diverse literary forms. In the years running up to the granting of the Constitution a new form of poetry became widespread in Iran, namely political poetry (much of which was patriotic) that had no real precedent in Iran.2 Such poems appeared in the plethora of newspapers that were printed during this period, and many were composed in the traditional form of the ghazal (the usual theme of which had been love) yet contained many new political terms and words that were borrowed from European languages. Some critics, including Sa‘id Nafisi, complained of the lack of style and good taste in such poems by none other than Bahar.3 Although Nafisi does not elaborate on his criticism, most likely it seemed bizarre to him that within a single distich Bahar could combine traditional idioms such as serr-e zolf (the mystery of the ringlet) with the modern idea of majles-e shura (consultative assembly).4 Yet the poets had no choice but to adopt the new vocabulary in an attempt to appeal to a newly educated class and at the same time utilise a literary form that was familiar for the masses if they were to attract followers to their cause. Thus, the poets were forced to reject much of the poetic tradition of Iran, as “neither the phlegmatic Qajar court poetry nor the aloof mystic poems of the period could provide the proper response”, for the poet now had to
excite a large audience that was mostly illiterate or semi-literate, which listened to his poetry read by others or sung by folk-singers and
revolutionary bards. He had, therefore, to speak to them with simplicity and clarity in order to touch the chords of their heart.5
