ABSTRACT
It is easy to understand why modern parents and educators are often uncertain about what constitutes healthy self-esteem. Low self-esteem is not optimal; it has been found to contribute to a number of maladaptive outcomes, including lower life satisfaction, depressive symptoms, and suicidal impulses (Harter, 1993; Myers & Diener, 1995; Orth, Robins, & Roberts, 2008). Yet high self-esteem has also come under increased scrutiny: there has been considerable recent debate about whether high self-esteem causes many of the positive outcomes it was once believed to produce, including academic achievement, occupational success, and popularity (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Swann, Chang-Schneider, & Larsen McClarty, 2007; Trzesniewski, Donnellan, Moffitt, Robins, Poulton, & Caspi, 2006). Even more troubling for advocates of the virtues of high self-esteem is the fact that positive attitudes about the self have been associated with aggression and violence (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996), discrimination (Aberson, Healy, & Romero, 2000; Crocker, Thompson, McGraw & Ingerman, 1987), and pervasive self-serving biases (Blaine & Crocker, 1993). In addition, there is recent evidence that the rate of narcissism is on the rise – particularly among young people – and this may contribute to inflated self-views and a troubling sense of entitlement (Twenge, Konrath, Foster, & Campbell, 2008). In light of these considerations, just what is “healthy” self-esteem?
