ABSTRACT
In Chapter 2 we argued that complex societal problems are not ‘things’ that can be objectively ascertained. Whether a societal situation is a problem depends upon the perceptions of the parties involved. These perceptions vary since they are based upon diverging, and sometimes conflicting, interests and frames of reference. As a consequence, parties interpret and evaluate situations, information and proposals for improvement differently. Attempts to reduce uncertainty about content by gathering information, therefore, may be counter-productive; they often contribute to information overload and ambiguity. Research and science cannot overcome differences between stakeholders. Often research results are not perceived as authoritative. This also has to do with the fact that the production of knowledge is always conducted from a specific problem framework: choices with regard to assumptions, questions, techniques, analysis and interpretations are, to some degree, always subjective. In addition to authoritativeness, the conclusiveness of research and science is often a problem too. Given the available knowledge resources and the state of research, answers to questions may simply not be available. But societal conflict might also penetrate the research arena, so that experts are in conflict with one another.
