ABSTRACT
Among rays, only the stingrays can be considered dangerous to man. Stingrays may be subdivided into six families, one found in fresh water (Potamotrygonidae) and five marine ones: Dasyatidae (stingrays), such as the European species Dasyatis pastinaca and D. violacea; Gymnuridae; Myliobatidae; Rhinopteridae; and Urolophidae. Stingrays do not possess distinct venom glands and so extraction of the venom is difficult. This has hindered research into the effects of the venom. General symptoms include nausea, vomiting, syncope, salivation, muscle cramps, diarrhoea, convulsions and circulatory collapse. These symptoms are associated with severe envenoming, while severe distress due to local pain is the most common problem in all stingray injuries. There may be underlying damage to major structures, including vessels, nerves, tendons or muscle, requiring appropriate immediate or delayed repair. Tetanus prophylaxis is an important part of the management of any stingray wound, minor to severe.
