ABSTRACT
Behavioral researchers have suggested that selection by consequences is the operating principle for biology, behavior, and culture (e.g., Pierce & Epling, 1997). It is a general form of causation that goes beyond the push-pull mechanistic Newtonian model of physics (Hull, Langman, & Glenn, 2001). In terms of biology (level 1), selection by consequences involves natural selection or the selection of genes based upon reproductive success. At the level of behavior (level 2), selection by consequences is described by the principle of reinforcement-the selection of operant behavior by the effects it produces. A third level of selection occurs in terms of culture (level 3 or cultural selection). Cultural practices (ways of doing things) are selected by macro-level consequences for the group involving greater efficiency, lower costs, and higher likelihood of survival.
