ABSTRACT
This chapter presents the descriptive framework for consonants, and explores ways in which languages achieve further variety and contrast in the articulation of consonant sounds. It describes more contributions made by the vocal folds, variations on place of articulation, and manner variation. Vocal fold behaviour can affect not only the steady state of a consonant stricture but also the approach to that position and the period immediately following it. Voiceless consonants are produced with open vocal folds, permitting free flow of egressive pulmonic air. Voiceless unaspirated consonants are typified by French, Russian or Hungarian plosives, for example, and French or English fricatives and affricates. As the norm for all consonants, absence of aspiration is usually unmarked in phonetic transcription. Palatalization and velarization involve, respectively, front and back close vowel resonances being added to consonants. The pronunciation given to the voiced alveolar lateral in both Scottish English and General American English is a good example of velarization.
