ABSTRACT
As we saw in Chapter 4, psychoanalytic theory asks us to examine the ways in which our personal identity is formed by our early emotional experience within the family. In Chapter 5 we saw that Marxist theory asks us to examine the ways in which our personal identity is formed by the socioeconomic system in which we live. Feminist theory asks us to examine, instead, the ways in which our personal identity is formed by our culture’s definitions of what it means to be a man or a woman. For from a feminist perspective, our experience of both the family and the socioeconomic system in which we live depends to a large extent on our sex: on the ways in which men and women are treated differently and on the way men are socialized to be masculine and women are socialized to be feminine. Specifically, in most cultures men occupy most or all positions of power,
which is why those cultures are called patriarchies or patriarchal cultures. For the word patriarchy, broadly defined, refers to any society in which men hold all or most of the power. In a patriarchy, women suffer varying degrees of oppression depending on, among other things, their race, ethnicity, socioeconomic class, religion, sexual orientation, and the country or region in which they live. Feminism, therefore, seeks to understand the ways in which women are oppressed-socially, economically, politically, and psychologically-in order to reduce, if not eliminate their oppression. Ideally, feminism would like to achieve a society in which women and men are encouraged to fulfill their full potential as human beings regardless of the extent to which their abilities and inclinations differ from traditional (patriarchal) definitions of femininity and masculinity. Of course, patriarchal ideology (the patriarchal system of beliefs and
assumptions) is difficult for most of us to recognize clearly and consistently because our everyday experience is so saturated with it. We have become so accustomed to patriarchal ideology that it often seems invisible. However, its invisibility makes this ideology all the more dangerous: it’s easier to address a problem we can see than a problem that pretends it does not exist. In
addition, the word feminist-which, for many years, was a target of ridicule by patriarchal leaders in politics, the media, and other social institutions-remains an unpopular term among many people today. The result is that many antipatriarchal women and men still feel uncomfortable identifying themselves as feminists or might not even recognize that they are feminists. This unfortunate state of affairs should not surprise us, however, given the
amount of misinformation about feminism still in circulation. To cite just one example, it is still generally assumed that feminism is directly opposed to family values. The fact is, however, that feminists continue to lead the struggle for better family policies, such as nutrition and healthcare for mothers and children; parental leave; high-quality, affordable daycare; the provision of shelters for battered women and their children; and the like. So if you need help, as many of us still do, adjusting to the idea that you’re a feminist, you can start by thinking of feminism as a form of human-rights activism, which it certainly is. We can start to use feminist theory to understand literature by asking the
following question about whatever literary work we want to interpret: Do the characters conform to patriarchal gender roles? To choose the simplest example, is the role of the strong, rational protector given to a male character while the role of the submissive, emotional nurturer is given to a female character? Or to put the question another way, are the female characters depicted according to patriarchal stereotypes of women? These include, for example, virginal angels and selfless caregivers (which are patriarchal stereotypes of women who conform to traditional gender role) as well as nags, gossips, seductresses, and “bitches” (which are patriarchal stereotypes of women who violate the traditional gender role). When a literary text portrays characters who conform to patriarchal gender
roles or depicts female characters as patriarchal stereotypes, we say that the text illustrates patriarchal ideology. That is, the text shows us what patriarchal ideology “looks like,” so to speak. Now, sometimes a literary text illustrates patriarchal ideology because it approves of that ideology. For example, a story or a play might positively portray characters who conform to traditional gender roles and negatively portray characters who violate those roles. Such a literary work would be considered a patriarchal text, which, from a feminist perspective, means that it promotes damaging beliefs about women and men. But keep in mind that a literary work can illustrate patriarchal ideology in order to show us what’s wrong with that ideology. For example, a novel or a poem might show us that the characters who conform to traditional gender roles are harmed by those roles, or it might show us the negative effects of patriarchal stereotyping. In both these cases, the literary work would be considered an antipatriarchal text, which, from a feminist perspective, means that it promotes accurate perceptions of women and men. Another, though less common kind of antipatriarchal text is one that offers positive portrayals of characters who violate traditional gender roles, for example, female characters
who are independent, who think and act for themselves in admirable ways, or male characters who are admirably sensitive and nurturing. Our interpretation exercises, which follow the “Basic concepts” section later, include examples of these various kinds of patriarchal and antipatriarchal texts. It’s often difficult, however, to tell for sure what a literary work wants us to
think about the gender roles its characters embody. Does the text want us to admire or reject its patriarchal characters? Does the text want us to admire or reject its antipatriarchal characters? Even experienced readers often disagree about a text’s attitude toward its characters’ gender roles. So don’t be upset if you find it difficult to figure out whether a literary work is patriarchal or antipatriarchal. At this point, you may have to be content, at times, with determining what patriarchal or antipatriarchal ideology the text illustrates, without being certain whether or not the text endorses that ideology. So let’s start with a brief look at the patriarchal ideologies that feminist theory considers most fundamental to our understanding of patriarchal oppression. Although it’s important that you read through the “Basic concepts” section that follows, don’t be too concerned if you don’t feel you thoroughly understand every one. You’ll begin to understand these concepts much better when we use them, later in this chapter, to help us interpret the literary texts that appear at the end of this book. And you’ll see that these fundamental feminist concepts can help us understand other works of literature as well. Remember, too, that I’m offering you my own literary analyses in the
interpretation exercises provided later in this chapter. You might use the same feminist concepts I use but come up with different interpretations of your own. If you disagree with any of the analyses I offer in these exercises, don’t be afraid to look in the literary work in question for evidence that will support your viewpoint. A literary work can often support a number of different interpretations even when readers are using concepts from the same theory.
