ABSTRACT
Electrostatic forces and charges on atoms and molecules can affect chemical equilibria. In acid–base equilibria, molecules gain or lose protons. In oxidation–reduction equilibria, molecules gain or lose electrons. These processes occur in batteries, electroplating, respiration, photosynthesis, combustion, and corrosion. And, electric fields can gate the flows of ions through membrane channels, powering brains, nerves, and muscles. To explore these processes, we combine the laws of electrostatics, through Coulomb’s law and Poisson’s equation, with the laws of thermodynamic equilibrium, through the Boltzmann distribution law. We begin with the partitioning of charged particles, which is governed by a generalization of the chemical potential called the electrochemical potential.
