Introduction

Racism, xenophobia, and discrimination are profound liabilities to European Union identity and development. The ideal is clearly stated: “Racism and xenophobia are diametrically opposed to everything that Europe stands for in terms of human dignity, mutual respect and understanding and citizenship in the broadest sense” (European Commission, Racism and Xenophobia). Yet, the spectre of racism and xenophobia haunts Europe. This spectre derives its rhetorical force from the fact that, on the one hand, contemporary Europe-as represented by the European Union-envisions itself as an open, tolerant, ‘multicultural,’ democratic community and, on the other, this vision is contradicted by everyday events: persistent stereotyping, stigmatisation, and discrimination at all levels of society; the emergence of political movements and relatively successful political parties espousing racist ideologies; increasing verbal and physical abuse of immigrants and minorities across Europe.