GLOSSARY

Caliph head of the Islamic community. Abu Bakr was appointed as Muhammad’s successor in 632 with the title

Arabic

caravanserai caravan stop – hostel for travellers with provision for storage of their goods

Persian/ Turkish

castrum Roman fortress or fortified camp Latin

cataphracti Byzantine armoured, mounted forces Greek

cella enclosed shrine of a classical temple to which only priests are allowed access

Latin

Coele, Syria literally ‘hollow Syria’ – originally probably a reference to the region around the indentation of the Beqa`a Valley, later apparently applied to northern Syria

Greek

dar al-`adl court of justice Arabic

dar al-`imara ‘abode of princes’ or princely palace (fr. `amil – ‘prince’; pl `ummal)

Arabic

dar al-hadith school for study of teachings of the Prophet Muhammad Arabic

darb path, route Arabic

daftardar chief financial official in an Ottoman governorate, usually appointed directly from Istanbul and remaining in office for a long period

Turkish

deir monastery Arabic

demos people, population of a city Greek

derwish member of a Sufi order, mystic Persian

dhimmi non-Muslims from one of the communities of ‘the Book’ – Christian, Jew, Samaritan

Arabic

diwan (pl dawawin)

(1) office, ministry – integral part of the governor’s seraya; (2) consultative body advising a governor

Turkish/ Arabic

Druze sect which broke away from Isma`ili mainstream under the third Fatimid Caliph, Hakim (r.996-1021); predominant in certain mountainous regions of Syria and Lebanon

Arabic

dux military commander Latin

effendi (originally) scribe or bureaucrat; Ottoman honorific title Turkish

emir see amir Arabic

ethnarch national or tribal ruler Greek

firman Ottoman imperial decree signed by the Sultan Turkish

fondaco factory, see funduq Italian

funduq (pl fanadiq) inn; factory housing merchant and his wares (from Greek pandocheion)

Arabic

Ghassanids Arab tribal grouping which accepted Christianity and settled within the Roman limes in Syria in the late fifth century

Arabic

hadith recorded sayings or actions of the Prophet Arabic

Hajj annual pilgrimage to Mecca Arabic

halqa guard assigned to sultan – Ayyubid Arabic

Hanafi one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – from teachings of Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man ibn Thabit (d.767) – developed in the mid-eighth century from Basra-Kufa tradition – emphasis on personal reflection in decisions – favoured by Ottomans

Arabic

Hanbali one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – from teachings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d.855) – most literal and rigorous, emphasis on the Koran and Sunna not speculation or mysticism – in vanguard of Sunni revival in tenth century – particularly strong under Mamluks

Arabic

hammam public steam bath Arabic

Hijaz northern Arabia, location of the holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina

Arabic

hijra Muhammed’s ‘emigration’ from Mecca to Medina (AD 622) – start of the Islamic era

Arabic

ibn son of (sometimes bin) Arabic

al-Ikhshid Fatimid honorific title – ‘brilliant, worthy’ Persian

Ikhshidids Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikshid established a short-lived dynasty (935-69) which maintained Damascene independence against the rising power of the Arab principality of the Hamdanids in Aleppo

ArabicPersian

Ilkhans Mongol ruling dynasty in Persia, 13-14th centuries Persian

imam prayer leader Arabic

imaret public kitchen, usually charitable institution Turkish, from Arabic

iqta` grant entitling holder of military or administrative office to use tax revenues raised from an estate – unlike European feudalism, no permanent right to ownership of land was conferred

Arabic

Isma`ili branch of Shi`a Islam, supporters of the claim of Isma`il, son of Jafar as Sadiq (d.765), to the spiritual leadership of Islam

Persian/ Arabic

iwan room with open side looking onto a courtyard and serving as a space for entertainment or instruction

Arabic from Persian

jadid new Arabic

jami`a congregational mosque Arabic

janissaries Ottoman troops – both locally raised (yerliya) and Istanbul-based (kapikul)

Turkish

Jazira literally ‘island’ – usually refers to the north-east of Syria between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

Arabic

jebel hill or mountain Arabic

jihad ‘effort directed upon oneself for the attainment of moral and religious perfection’ – by extension, ‘military action with the object of the expansion of Islam’ (Djihad in EI2)

Arabic

jizya poll tax paid to state by non-Muslims Arabic

jund (pl ajnad) governorate Arabic

kapikul (pl kapikuli)

Ottoman professional forces rotated from Istanbul (from Turkish qapi qulu – ‘slave of the Porte’)

Arabic from Turkish

Karmati (Qarmati, Carmathians)

sect, now defunct, that broke away from the Isma`ili tradition, followers of Hamdam Karmat in late ninth century Bahrain who frequently challenged Fatimid rule in Syria and Iraq

Arabic

karma band of vine (acanthus and grape) leaves used for decorative purposes and possibly to describe a sacred space (literally ‘vine’)

Arabic

khan (pl khanat) depot-hostelry for exchange of goods Persian

khanqah (khankah; pl khawanik)

‘monastery’ for Sufi mystics, generally stricter than a zawiya and usually named after a benefactor

Arabic, from Persian

kharaj (or kharj) land tax Arabic

khatun ‘princess’, later title of respect for any woman Kurdish, Arabic

khirbet ruin Arabic

Koran (Kur’an (EI2), Qur’an)

Muslim holy scripture as revealed to Muhammad Arabic

kubbat see qubba Arabic

Kurds people of Iranian origin, inhabiting eastern Turkey, parts of northern Syria and northern Iraq

limes areas on the frontier of the Roman and Byzantine Empires

Latin

limitanei initially frontier forces commanded by a dux; later locally raised militia often farming frontier land

Greek

madhanat tower – one of three words used to refer to ‘minaret’ Arabic

madhhab way of thinking, persuasion – one of four schools of Islamic jurisprudence

Arabic

madrasa (pl madaris)

residential school for Islamic instruction, usually funded by a charitable endowment (waqf )

Arabic

mahmal palanquin or canopy used to cover the Prophet’s grave at Medina, provided each year by the Islamic ruler as contribution to the Hajj and transported by camel

Arabic

majlis council of representatives, usually of a local character Turkish

malik ‘king’ but more commonly used for any governor or prince of the Ayyubid or Mamluk realms

Arabic

Maliki one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – developed in the eighth century from doctrines of Imam Malik ibn Anas (d.795) as an initiative by `Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur to unify Islamic law codes around the consensus and tradition of Medina – emphasis on moderation; opposed to mysticism – strong in Spain and North Africa

Arabic

mamluk (pl mamalik)

literally ‘thing possessed’, ‘slave’ – professional soldiers recruited in childhood from marginal lands (initially, Central Asia) and trained to serve a patron

Arabic

mamlaka royal power, kingdom or governorate Arabic

makbara cemetery Arabic

maqam foot, mode, measure Arabic

marj grazing area on the edge of cultivated land (hence, Merdje Square). Other parts of the Damascus marj are referred to by specific names – e.g. Marj Rahit (northeast of the city – after 14th century, Marj al-`Adra’), Marj al-Suffar (south). These areas often served as rallying zones for invading armies

Arabic

maristan hospital and medical teaching institution Arabic

mashhad ‘place of witness’ – shrine (esp in Shi`ite tradition) Persian

Mawlawiye (Mevlevi)

Sufi order – followers of Jalal al-Din Rumi (Mawlana – ‘our master’) died Konya 1273 – by reputation, syncretist with inclinations towards Shi`ism

Arabic/ Turkish

metrokomia (pl metrokomiai)

‘mother village’ – large village with supervisory administrative function over its environs

Greek

midan (or maidan) open area for military training Arabic

mihrab niche or alcove in the qibla wall of a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca

Arabic

Mongols Central Asia group whose original home was in the east of present-day Mongolia – their 13-14th-century empire attained its greatest extent under Ghengis Khan

—

mujahid warrior in the cause of Islam Arabic

muqaddam leader of a militia or armed group Arabic

muqarnas three dimensional decoration in Islamic architecture Arabic

mutasallim, mutasarrif

local official in the Ottoman system, usually ruler of a sanjak (or deputy to a governor of a wilayat)

Arabic/ Turkish

nahr river or canal Arabic

na’ib (pl nuwwab) ‘substitute, delegate’ – military governor or senior administrative official

Arabic

na’ib al-sultana viceroy – highest administrative official under a sultan Arabic

Naqshbandi (Nakshbendi)

Sufi order – followers of Bahar al-Din Naqshband (14th century) – by reputation, strict and fanatical

Turkish

nargilla (or narghile)

water pipe for smoking Turkish

narthex vestibule stretching across western end of a church Latin

nawfara spring, water source, fountain Arabic

noria wooden waterwheels used to draw water from a stream to irrigate gardens

Arabic

Nusairis see `Alawis – followers of a Shi`ite heterodox sect French

Ortuqids Turkish dynasty which controlled region of Diyarbakir (eastern Turkey) from 11-14th centuries

Turkish

pasha Ottoman title of high rank (in Arabic, basha) Turkish

peribolos outer compound surrounding a Greek-Roman temple complex

Greek

Porte the ‘Sublime Porte’ was the name of the gateway by which foreign envoys approached the Ottoman court and was often used as a synonym for the imperial administration

French

procurator agent of the Roman government, especially for financial affairs – also used for official supervising minor provinces where no legions were stationed

Latin

propylaeum gateway marking entry to a sacred enclosure Greek

qa’a formal reception room of an Arab house Arabic

qadi judge under Islamic (Shari`a) law Arabic

qala`a (t) citadel or castle Arabic

qanatir arches, arcade Arabic

Qarmati see Karmati Arabic

qasr castle or mansion Arabic

Qays Arab tribe Arabic

qibla wall facing the direction of prayer, towards Mecca (in Damascus, south)

Arabic

qubba (kubbat) tomb, mausoleum (more commonly, turba) Arabic

Qur’an see Koran Arabic

rabat see ribat

ra`is (pl ru`asa`) leader – e.g. of a local gang or militia; of a village; of a religious community

Arabic

ribat (or rabat)

riwaq

monastery for Sufi mystics; barracks for men committed to guarding the frontiers

portico, colonnade, loggia

Arabic

Arabic

salya salon of a late Ottoman house Turkish from French

sanjak flag, standard; in Ottoman administration, local administrative unit

Turkish

sanjakdar royal standard bearer Turkish

Saracens originally a tribe from the northern Hijaz (Ptolemy Geography 6.7), the term was adopted by the Romans to refer generically to nomadic Arabs

ArabicLatin

seraya governor’s palace or headquarters Persian via Turkish

selamlik public quarters of an Ottoman house Turkish

Seljuk Turkish dynasty which reached peak of its power in 11-12th centuries in Anatolia and Syria

Turkish

Shafe`i one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – follow teachings of Imam al-Shafe`i (d.820) – opposed to conformism; more emphasis on community consensus, on Sunna – strong in non-Fatimid Egypt and in Syria; the preferred code under the Ayyubids

Arabic

sharaf ‘elevated place’, (river) ‘bank’ –‘Upper Sharaf’ is the term applied to the higher ground overlooking the Barada from the north, location of present downtown Damascus

Arabic

sharia transliteration: shaari` = street (anglicised as ‘sharia’) Arabic

Sharia transliteration: sharii`a = Islamic traditional law Arabic

sheikh dignitary or headman; spiritual leader of a group of mystics

Arabic

Shi`a (Shi`ites) movement for the recognition of the claim of the descendants of `Ali. Originally particularly strong in southern Iraq, Shi`ism became a reaction to the dominance of the Sunni Turkish Seljuks in the `Abbasid Empire

Arabic

shihna prefect of a city (Ayyubid) Arabic

Sublime Porte see Porte

Sufi Islamic mystic – sought to establish, through piety and self-denial, personal contact with the Creator – emphasis on gnosis or personal knowledge rather than legal interpretation of the Koran and hadith [EI2 ‘Tasawwuf’]

Arabic

Sunna (hence, Sunni)

generally approved standard or practice introduced by the Prophet (EI2)

Arabic

suq (suk, pl aswak) market (see also suwayqa) Arabic

sultan a term with various meanings but which implies that a person is appointed by a higher authority to hold temporal power. By Ayyubid times it was fairly loosely used and could be held by several princes simultaneously as a personal title

from Arabic salata – to have power

sultana administrative district or region, esp. under Mamluks Arabic

suwayqa small local market for daily needs Arabic

Syria Coele literally ‘hollow Syria’ – originally probably a reference to the region around the indentation of the Beqa`a Valley, later apparently applied to northern Syria

Greek

Tanzimat literally ‘reorganisation’ – administrative reforms introduced by the Ottoman authorities between 1839 and 1876 to regularise and centralise the workings of the imperial administration

Turkish

tekkiye Sufi monastery. (‘Tekkiye’ is used to refer specifically to the major project of Suleiman the Magnificent in Damascus.)

Turkish

temenos inner compound of a Greek-Roman temple, space for performance of outdoor sacrifices

Greek

tetrakionion (pl tetrakionia)

structure allowing four-way passage – e.g. cluster of four plinths with surmounting columns, usually unroofed; free-standing

Greek

tetrapylon four-way arch, usually marking crossing point of two routes and joined to structure of colonnades – see also tetrakionion

Greek

trebuchet siege engine – catapult for launching missiles French

turba mausoleum, tomb chamber, usually domed Arabic

Turkic language family of Turkish-speaking people Turkish

Turkoman Turkic tribes distributed over much of the Near and Middle East and Central Asia from medieval to modern times (‘Türkmen’ in EI2)

Turkish

Turks people of Central Asian origin who moved into Anatolia and parts of Syria and Iraq from the 9th century; Turkish-speaking inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire and its successor

Turkish

`ulama Islamic religious leadership Arabic

umm mother of Arabic

umma community of believers (in Islam) Arabic

vexillation Roman military unit grouped under their own vexillum (‘flag, standard’) but smaller than a legion

Latin

voussoir stone forming segment of an arch French

Wahhabis Islamic fundamentalist sect in Arabia Arabic

wali ‘governor’ – responsible for civil administration ArabicTurkish

waqf (wakf, pl awaqf )

endowment tying income from a business enterprise to support of a religious, charitable or educational institution

Arabic

wazir Ottoman rank usually corresponding to the status of a governor

ArabicTurkish

wilaya (pl wilayat) or vilaya

governorate (Mamluk, Ottoman) ArabicTurkish

Yamani Arab tribe of south-west Arabian origin Arabic

yerliya Ottoman local forces, often hired from among descendants of janissaries (Turkish yerlu = ‘local’)

ArabicTurkish

zawiya (pl zawaya) Sufi hospice – informal school for Islamic studies, usually named after the sheikh whose followers gathered there

Arabic