ABSTRACT
From command and control through military communications and intelligence gathering to weapons targeting, space-based systems have become a key part of a nation’s military capabilities. Space systems are increasingly important for monitoring potential threats, managing military forces, and carrying out combat operations. They are being closely integrated into the military C4ISR architecture, both in Europe and the United States. Furthermore, military space capabilities are increasingly dependent on the private sector. While the Cold War years were characterized by largely military activity in space, the 1990s witnessed a surge of private sector pursuits, and commercial space launches began to exceed national security missions. Today, government agencies worldwide are contracting space programs and services out to companies and multinational consortia, and relying on multiple commercial contractors and sub-contractors for their space programs. In addition, many existing space assets and launch vehicles are now owned by private fi rms or international entities rather than by countries (Krepon 2003: 89).
