ABSTRACT
For centuries, all tests and examinations were oral, but in Britain from the early nineteenth century written exams gradually ousted orals almost completely. Elsewhere in the world (e.g. Denmark and the former Soviet Union), the tradition of oral testing, i.e. of assessing subject knowledge orally, has survived much more. Here practically the only remaining relic of the days before all-encompassing written papers is the viva voce examination for research degrees. But the viva system reminds us that the old tradition focused on content, i.e. on testing through talk, whereas the current movement focuses on the use of language, i.e. on the testing of talk. The distinction between these two is, of course, not watertight and cannot be: it is a question of the relative emphasis given to content or form. The concern of this chapter is the assessment of oral language, i.e. of how effectively pupils communicate through speech.
