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Jackson, Thomas Jonathan (1824-63), American Confederate General, known as ‘Stonewall Jackson’: born at Clarksburg, West Virginia, graduated from the Military Academy at West Point in 1846 and fought in the Mexican War, 18468, before taking up a post as mathematics instructor at the Virginia Military Institute in the Shenandoah valley during the ten years before the Civil War. On Virginia’s secession he joined the Confederate Army, together with many of his cadets, and won his soubriquet as a brigade commander when his resolute stand on Henry House Hill rallied the Confederate defenders in the first battle of Bull Run (2.1 July 1861). Local knowledge helped him successfully protect the South’s ‘granary’, the Shenandoah valley, in a brilliant campaign throughout 1862. At midsummer he sustained some rebuffs in the seven-day battle to defend Richmond but he played a decisive role in the Confederate victory at Second Bull Run (29-30 August 1862). Eighteen days later he reached Antietam in Maryland in time to support LEE against an assault by a far larger army under MCCLELLAN. Jackson was Lee’s principal lieutenant at Fredericksburg on 13 December 1862 and at Chancellorsville on 1-2, May 1863, but he was fired upon in mistake by Confederate troops from North Carolina in the aftermath of Chancellorsville and died from his wounds a few days later (10 May). Jackson, a strict Calvinist, was the ablest and most enterprising field commander to serve under Lee. L.Chambers: Stonewall Jackson (2 vols) (New York, 1959); F.Vandiver: Mighty Stonewall (New York, 1957). Jameson, Leander Starr (1853-1917), anti-Boer conspirator and Prime Minister of Cape Colony from 1904 to 1908: born in Edinburgh, where he studied medicine. He emigrated to South Africa and started a medical practice at Kimberley in 1878, soon becoming an associate of Cecil RHODES. In 1891 Rhodes appointed him administrator for the British South Africa Company in Fort Salisbury, where he was a popular and respected figure. Rhodes encouraged an uprising of the non-Boer whites in the Transvaal, with Jameson leading a force of 470 mounted men from Pitsani on the Bechuanaland border to Johannesburg, 180 miles away, in order to support these ‘Uitlanders’ in their revolt against President KRUGER. Jameson’s security was poor and, on 2 January 1896, four days after entering the Transvaal, his force was ambushed at Doornkop by General Piet Cronje (1835-1911). Dr Jameson was handed over to

the British authorities, returned to England to stand trial, and in July 1896 was sentenced to fifteen months in prison, even though he was hailed as a hero by the London crowd. After serving five months in Holloway Prison he was released and returned to South Africa. He was elected to the Cape Colony Legislative Assembly in 1900 as a Progressive, taking office as Prime Minister in 1904 and working for South African union. He came to England in 1909 with eight other spokesmen for South Africa, including BOTHA, HERTZ OG SMUTS, all of whom were entertained by King EDWARD VII. Dr Jame son sat Albany in the first Parliament of the Union of South Africa at Pretoria, and in 1911 he accepted a baronetcy from GEORGE v. After retiring from active politics in 1912 he spent the last five years of his life as President of the British South Africa Company. I.D.Colvin: The Life of Jameson (2 vols) (1922); E.Pakenham: Jameson’s Raid (rev. edn 1982). Jaruzelski, Wojciech (1923-), Polish General and political leader in the 1980s: born at Kurow into a devout Catholic family, deported to the Soviet Union when south eastern Poland was occupied by Russians in 1939. Jaruzelski was trained as a loyal communist soldier and fought with a Polish division in the Red Army 1944-5, later graduating from the Warsaw Military Academy. By 1961 he was Colonel in charge of political education in the Polish army and sat in Parliament, joining the inner politburo of the Workers’ Party (PZPR) in 1964. Over the following three years he was Chief of General Staff and Defence Minister from 1968 to 1983. The threat of radical upheaval by the Solidarity movement, under WALESA, induced the PZPR to give increasing powers to Jaruzelski, as a model political General. He took office as Prime Minister in February 1981, became Chief Secretary of the PZPR in September and, in December, carried out the first military coup in a ‘people’s democracy’, imposing martial law on the country for eighteen months, establishing a Military Council of National Salvation which governed Poland throughout 1982. Jaruzelski’s political orthodoxy prevented Soviet intervention, while he used the Church hierarchy to counterbalance Solidarity’s radicalism. In November 1985 he gave up the premiership and became Polish Head of State. As communism began to wither away in 1988-9 Jaruzelski accepted the emergence of a ‘socialist pluralist’ democracy. He retired from office in December 1990. In May 1993 he was formally accused of causing the deaths of forty-four workers on 16-17 December 1970 when, as Defence Minister, he ordered military intervention against strikers in Gdynia. N. Davies: Heart of Europe (Oxford, 1984); K.Ruane: The Polish Challenge (1982); M.Craig: The Crystal Spirit (1986). Jaurès, Jean (1859-1914), leading French Socialist from 1898 to 1914: born at Castres in the Tarn department of south-eastern France, educated at the Ecole Normale and at the University of Toulouse, becoming a secondary school teacher and a lecturer in philosophy. He sat in the Chamber of Deputies as a moderate Republican from 1885 to 1889, returning there as a Socialist from 1893 to 1898 and from 1902 until his death. His socialism, with its great concern for the rights of the individual, owed more to French traditions than to doctrinaire

Marxism. He championed DREYFUS and collaborated with the Dreyfusard radical governments of 1902-5. The Amsterdam Congress of the Socialist International in 1904 condemned this collaboration and, in order to form a united French Socialist Party (SFIO), Jaurès accepted the Congress’s criticism, declining personally to hold office in any ‘bourgeois coalition government’. He continued, however, to give the policies of the SFIO a reformist, rather than a revolutionary, character. From 1906 onwards he attempted to organize a common socialist policy in France and in Germany against war. The newspaper L’Humanité, which he founded in 1904, emphasized the need for unity between the Socialist parties of the great European powers. Jaurès’ passionate intellectual pacifism failed to prevent the workers responding to the mobilization call of the governments in the war crisis of 1914. Jaurès himself was assassinated by a fanatical French nationalist on 31 July 1914. H.Goldberg: Life of Jean Jaurès (Madison, Wis., 1962); J.Hampden Jackson: Jean Jaurès (1943); H.R.Weinstein: Jean Jaurès, Patriotism in the French Socialist Movement (New York, 1936); A.Noland: The Founding of the French Socialist Party 1893-1905 (Cambridge, Mass., 1956). Jellicoe, John Rushworth (1859-1935), British Admiral: born at Southampton, entering the Royal Navy as a cadet at the age of 13. In June 1893, as a Commander, he survived the famous collision off Beirut between the Mediterranean flagship HMS Victoria (in which he was serving) and another ironclad, HMS Camperdown. Subsequently he led a land force with distinction during the Boxer unrest in China, 1900, and was a protégé and in due course a close colleague of the energetic naval reformer, Admiral FISHER. From 1912 to 1914 he was at the Admiralty as Second Sea Lord, taking command of the Grand Fleet at Scapa Flow on the eve of war. He was victorious in the relatively minor naval engagements of Heligoland Bight (28 August 1914) and the Dogger Bank (24 January 1915), but he had difficulty in bringing the German High Seas Fleet to battle. On the evening of 31 May 1916 he successfully intercepted the Germans off Jutland after they had been enticed towards the Grand Fleet by the battle-cruiser action of Admiral BEATTY. Yet Jellicoe was much criticized, even after his victory at Jutland, and he never entirely shook off a reputation for caution. From November 1916 to Christmas 1917 he was First Sea Lord, the strain of office bearing heavily upon his health. He had been knighted in 1907 and was raised to the peerage as a Viscount in 1918. Like Fisher and Beatty, he was awarded the Order of Merit. From 1920 to 1925 he was Governor-General of New Zealand, and was created Earl on his return to England. Earl Jellicoe: The Grand Fleet, 1914-16; its Creation, Development and Work (1919); R.H.Bacon: Life of Earl Jellicoe of Scapa (1936); A.J.Marder: From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow (5 vols) (1961-70); C.Barnett: The Sword-bearers (1963). Jinnah, Mohammed Ali (1876-1948), founder of Pakistan: born at Karachi, and from 1897 practised as a barrister in Bombay. In 1910 he became a member of the Viceroy’s Legislative Council. From 1913 to 1928 he encouraged

collaboration between the Indian National Congress Party of Mohandas GANDHI, of which he was a member for many years, and the Indian Muslim League, which he joined in 1913. Suspicion that Gandhi favoured narrowly Hindu interests induced Jinnah to champion the Muslim minority at the Round Table Conference on India in London (1931). Three years later he began to organize the Muslim League, which was originally a religious and cultural movement, into a powerful political force. In March 1940 a congress of Indian Muslims at Lahore backed Jinnah’s call for the establishment in an independent partitioned India, of ‘Pakistan’. Jinnah’s support for the British war effort was in marked contrast to the refusal of the Hindu Congress to collaborate with the imperial power in halting the Japanese advance. The post-war elections gave the Muslim League majorities in all the predominantly Muslim areas of British India, both in the west and the east. These successes made Jinnah more outspoken: he favoured ‘direct action’ to prevent disputed regions becoming part of Hindu-dominated Congress India. Four thousand people died in rioting between Muslims and Hindus, mainly around Calcutta. The British authorities, who had earlier been not unsympathetic to Jinnah, now blamed his agitation for the bloodshed. When Pakistan was created on 15 August 1947 its extent was limited, Jinnah being denied areas he had sought in Kashmir, the Punjab, Assam and Bengal. He became the first Governor-General of what he called ‘this maimed and motheaten’ Pakistan, but his health was poor. He found the problem of refugees, the communal riots, and the statecraft shown by the new India over the Kashmir question too much for him. The Pakistanis hailed him as Quid-i-Azam (‘Great Leader’), but his thirteen-month tenure of the Governor-General’s office was sadly ineffectual. His death on 1 September 1948 left the less experienced Liaquat Ali Khan (1895-1951) to seek solutions to the problems which had baffled Jinnah in his last years. A.Jalal: The Sole Spokesman; Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge, 1985); M.A.Chaudhuri: The Emergence of Pakistan (New York, 1967). Joffre, Joseph Jacques Césaire (1852-1931), Marshal of France, commander of the French armies on the Western Front from 1914 to 1916: born at Rivesaltes, near Perpignan, and fought as an artillery cadet in defence of Paris in 1870-1. He later saw service in Indo-China and North Africa, commanding the force which, in 1894, crossed the desert to capture Timbuktu. From 1904 to 1906 he was director of the Corps of Engineers, showing gifts as an organizer and a reformer. He became Chief of the French General Staff in 1911, assuming command in the field in August 1914 and distinguishing himself by the decisive counter-offensive on the Marne in the fifth week of the war, a battle which deprived Germany of rapid victory and turned operations on the Western Front into a long war of attrition. Joffre-a patient and imperturbable General-lacked strategic imagination but was treated with affectionate respect by his troops. His policy of ‘nibbling away’ at the German line culminated in the staggering losses of the battle of the Somme in 1916. In December that year he was made Marshal of France (the first creation of a Marshal in over fifty years), but retired as

Commander-in-Chief. In 1917 he became President of the Allied War Council. For twelve years after the war he held nominal posts at the Ministry of War. J.C.C.Joffre: The Memoirs of Marshal Joffre (1932); R.Recouly: Joffre (1931); H.Isserlin: The Battle of the Marne (1965); A.H.Farrar-Hockley: The Somme (1964); E Spears: Liaison 1914 (1930). John XXIII (Angelo Giuseppe Roncali) (1881-1963), Pope from 1958 to 1963: born a peasant’s son near Bergamo, in northern Italy. He was ordained priest in 1904, saw service with the medical corps in the First World War, subsequently entering the papal diplomatic service. In March 1925 he was ordained a bishop, becoming apostolic delegate to Bulgaria (1925-34) and to Greece and Turkey in 1935. When Paris was liberated in 1944 he was sent as papal nuncio to France. In 1953 he was consecrated Archbishop (Patriarch) of Venice and created a cardinal. His humility and humanity made him popular in Venice. Although he was a strong contender for succession to the papacy on the death of PIUS XII, his a and his championship of worker-priests, appear to have made some of his fellow cardinals hesitant, and he was only elected Pope on the twelfth ballot (28 October 1958). His pontificate was distinguished by five characteristics: the emphasis on reconciliation between different Christian churches; increased personal liberty within the Church’s social doctrines; repeated pleas for world peace; the convening of the second Vatican Council of modern times in order to encourage progressive reforms in the Catholic Church; and acceptance of the obligation of the Pope to leave the Vatican for visits to hospitals, prisons, and special institutions within the see of Rome. He was remembered especially for his attempts to improve relations with the Orthodox Church and with Communist governments; he has sometimes been called ‘the Pope of the opening to the East’. Pope John died on 3 June 1963 and was succeeded by PAUL VI. Pope John XXIII: Letters to his Family (1969); E.E.Y. Hales: Pope John and his Revolution (1965); P.Hebblethwaite: John XXIII, Pope of the Council (1985). John Paul I (Albino Luciani) (1912-78), Pope for thirty-three days in 1978: born in Canale d’Agordo near Belluno, of working-class origin. He spent most of his life in the Veneto region. In July 1935 he was ordained priest and sent to the Gregorian University at Rome for specialist studies before returning to his native parish as a curate. From 1937 to 1947 he taught in the seminary at Belluno and assumed some executive responsibilities as vicar-general within the diocese. Pope JOHN XXII I creat ed Bishop of Vittorio Veneto in December 1958 and he modelled his episcopate on the Pope’s administration in Venice, championing liturgical reform and encouraging missionary activity in the remote mountainous villages. Outside the diocese he was a prominent member of the doctrinal commission established by the Italian bishops. In December 1969 he became Patriarch of Venice, where he sought to reduce the pomp of ecclesiastical office and wrote Illustrissimi, a series of letters to eminent figures of the past which he used as a means of communicating his faith and ideas. Pope PAUL VI created him Cardinal in March 1973. His judicious outspokenness made him a probable

candidate at the papal conclave of 1978. There was, however, widespread surprise when he was elected on the first day of the conclave (26 August), apparently after three ballots. He broke with precedent by refusing any coronation, declining to accept any of the traditional symbols of temporal authority at the inauguration of his ‘supreme pastorship’ on 3 September. He died from a heart attack during the night of 28-29 September. P.Hebblethwaite: The Year of Three Popes (1978); D. Yallop: In God’s Name (1984). John Paul II (Karol Wojtyla) (1920-), first non-Italian Pope since 1522: born at Wadowice, south west of Cracow. He was educated at the local gymnasium (high school) and was studying at the Jagiellonian University of Cracow at the outbreak of the Second World War. He was forced to find work in a stone quarry and a chemical factory under German occupation, eventually continuing theological studies secretly in the Cardinal-Archbishop’s palace at Cracow. After ordination in November 1946 he was sent to Rome for further study. From 1948 to 1951 he was a parish priest in Cracow and subsequently professor of moral theology at the University of Lublin. In 1958 he became auxiliary Bishop of Cracow and Archbishop six years later (January 1964). He showed greater subtlety in conciliating the Communist authorities without prejudicing the essentials of belief than his immediate predecessors or other prominent eastern European ecclesiastics. Pope PAUL VI created him Cardinal in June 1967. Subsequently the government in Warsaw allowed him to visit Canada, America and Australia as well as to participate in synodical discussions in Rome. Unexpectedly he was elected Pope by the cardinals in conclave on 16 October 1978, thus breaking the practice of choosing an Italian prelate which had endured for four-and-a-half centuries. He was able to return to his native Poland in the early summer of 1979, and in September became the first Pope to visit Ireland, where he condemned political violence. He was himself shot and wounded by a Turkish gunman in St Peter’s Square, Rome, on 13 May 1981. On his recovery he continued his practice of worldwide travel, visiting seventy-five countries during the first ten years of his pontificate; in May 1982 he became the first Pope to come to England, going on to Wales and Scotland. Catholics within the Soviet bloc looked upon him as a liberal Pope, who helped undermine communism without emncouraging dangerous confrontation. But over theological ques tions, moral problems of family life and church discipline John Paul II showed himself staunchly conservative: he confirmed traditional teaching on marriage, divorce, homosexuality, contraception, abortion, celibacy of the clergy and the ordination of women. Progressives in Latin America, Germany and the Netherlands were disappointed by his opposition to ‘liberation theology’, his apparent fear that active participation by churchmen in the class struggle of the politically oppressed and socially deprived would compromise his spiritual role as ‘witness of a universal love’. John Paul II’ s encyclic al Dives in misericordia (December 1980) called on men and women to show a merciful understanding of each other in an endangered world; and a further encyclical-Laboren exercens (September 1981)—urged the introduction of a new economic order, which in rejecting both

Marxism and capitalist usury, would honour the dignity of labour and assert the primacy of the individual over material things. No previous Pope exercised such direct personal influence in so many lands. Pope John Paul II: Collected Poems (1982); T. Szulc: Pope John Paul II (1995); Lord Longford: Pope John Paul II, an Authorized Biography (1982); M.Craig: Man From a Far Country (1981). Johnson Andrew (1808-75), President of the United States from 1865 to 1869: born at Raleigh, North Carolina, worked as a tailor in South Carolina and Tennessee, advancing through local politics to the Tennessee state legislature by his twenty-eighth birthday. He was returned to Congress in 1843, was Governor of Tennessee from 1853 to 1857 when he entered the Senate. Upon the outbreak of the Civil War he was the sole Southern Senator loyal to the Union and LINCOLN appointed him military Governor of Tennessee when the eastern section of the state was cleared of rebels in 1862. Johnson’s tact and local knowledge brought him such success in the recovered lands that Lincoln chose him as his running-mate in the 1864 election. As Vice-President he automatically succeeded Lincoln on 15 April 1865. Johnson sought to continue Lincoln’s policy of reconciliation, vetoing congressional measures which seemed to him to perpetuate the rift between North and South. Congress passed the Reconstruction Act (1867), which disfranchised former rebels, over his veto. Congress also sought to prevent President Johnson from dismissing members of the executive from office without senatorial approval. To test the validity of this attack upon his prerogative the President dismissed his Secretary of War and defied Congress. The House of Representatives duly impeached Andrew Johnson and he was brought to trial before the Senate, which ruled by thirty-five votes to nineteen against him (26 May 1868). Since an impeachment needed a two-thirds majority to succeed, the President was saved by a single vote. He served out the remaining ten months of his term, retired into private life but was re-elected to the Senate in 1874, dying soon after taking his seat. M. Lomask: Andrew Johnson: President on Trial (New York 1960); E.L.McKitrick: Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (New York, 1969). Johnson, Lyndon Baines (1908-73), President of the United States from 1963 to 1969: born at Stonewall, Texas, became a teacher and was for three years secretary to a congressman before being returned to the House of Representatives as a southern Democrat in the 1936 elections. From 1942, to 1945 he was a naval officer, although still technically a congressman. Texas elected him Senator in 1948, and he was majority leader in the Senate during the Eisenhower administration. The backing of the old ‘New Dealers’ among the Democrats secured him the vice-presidency under John KENNEDY in 1961. Upon Kennedy’s assassination at Dallas (22, November 1963), Johnson was immediately sworn in as President. In the 1964 presidential election he easily defeated his Republican opponent, GOLDWATER, to gain a bigger popular majority than any previous American President. Johnson’s presidency was overshadowed by the Vietnam War, which rapidly cost him popularity at home. His domestic achievements were, however, considerable: civil rights legislation,

a federal Education Act, medical benefits for the aged. Much of this programme had been planned by Kennedy, but Johnson himself claimed, in a famous speech at Ann Arbor, that he sought to ‘advance the quality of American civilization…to the Great Society’ (22 May 1964). Despite this high ideal, the electorate turned against the candidate whom he had backed to succeed him, Vice-President HUMPHREY, and the nation swung to NIXON and Republicanism in 1968. Johnson, whose health deteriorated under the strains of his office, retired to Texas, where he died four years later. M.Dallar: Lone Star Rising; Lyndon Johnson and his Times (Oxford, 1991); R.A.Caro: The Years of Lyndon Johnson (2 vols) (1982, 1990); V. D.Burnet: The Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson (Lawrence, Kans., 1976). Juan Carlos I (1938-), King of Spain: born in Rome, son of Don Juan, Count of Barcelona, and a grandson of ALFONSO XIII. He was educated in zerland and Portugal before being invited to Madrid by FRANCO for training with the Spanish army and navy. Two years of law studies at Madrid University were followed by five years of training in government administration. In May 1962, he married Princess Sophia of Greece (1938), elder sister of King CONSTANTINE II. On 22, July 1969 Franco formally recognized Juan Carlos as ‘Princ e Spain’, heir to a vacant throne. After the dictator’s death, the Prince was pro claimed King (22, November 1975). From the summer of 1976 he took an active part in speedily dismantling the Franco system of government, allowing Spain’s first democratic election in forty-one years to be held in June 1977. Juan Carlos continued to reign as a strictly constitutional monarch, though acting decisively in February 1981 to defeat a right-wing coup by senior dissident army officers. In August 1995 an alleged plot by Basque separatists to assassinate him was thwarted by the police. J.L.Villalonga: The King…(1993); P.Preston: The Triumph of Democracy in Spain (1986). Juarez, Benito Pablo (1806-72), Mexican liberal revolutionary President: born of Indian parentage near Oaxaca. In 1854 he led a revolt against clerical, conservative dominance of the country and he was virtually Prime Minister of Mexico from August 1855 to December 1857, introducing a series of belated reforms. Laws against the Church as a property owner provoked opposition and he was forced to seek refuge in Vera Cruz where, for more than two years, his ‘Liberal army waged war with the clerico-conservative administration in Mexico City. After winning this civil war in 1860 Juarez ordered the suspension of foreign debts. NAPOLEON III responded to appeals from French investors in Mexico by mounting an expedition which sought to establish a puppet empire in Mexico at a time when America could not enforce the Monroe Doctrine against European intervention. When the French installed Archduke MAXIMILIAN as Emperor, Juarez and his followers waged guerrilla warfare from the mountains. The ending of the American Civil War brought Juarez diplomatic support from the United States: the French withdrew; Maximilian was captured and shot, on Juarez’s orders and despite pleas for clemency from the administration in Washington and from other governments. Juarez was formally elected President

of Mexico on 19 December 1867 and again sought to establish a liberal administration in the country. He was re-elected in 1871 but died on 18 July 1872. B.Hamnett: Juarez (1994); J. Ridley: Maximilian and Juarez (1993).