WHO’S WHO IN WORLD POLITICS

Abd El-Krim (1882-1963), Moroccan nationalist: born in Ajdir, became a tribal chief (Kaid) in north-eastern Morocco. As a young man he visited Germany and was encouraged to raise the Rif tribes against Spanish and French infiltration into Morocco during the First World War. On 21 July 1921 at Annual he led Rif tribesmen in an assault on a Spanish punitive expedition and gained an astonishing victory, in which the Spanish were routed with heavy casualties. For five years Abd El-Krim was military dictator of a Rif Republic, which successfully defied the Spanish. In 1925 Rif troops also penetrated French Morocco. MARSHAL PÉTAIN was thereupon given command of a joint FrenchSpanish army which attacked the Rif Republic on two fronts, forcing Abd ElKrim to surrender to the French in May 1926. He was imprisoned in the French colony of Reunion, but in 1947 was given permission to return to Europe. During the journey he evaded his escort and found refuge in Egypt, where he was accorded privileged treatment as the first North African Arab nationalist to win victories against imperialism. He died in Cairo in May 1963. D.S.Woolman: Rebels in the Rif: Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion (Stanford, 1969); W.B.Harris: France, Spain and the Riff (1927); A.Barea: The Track (1958); Lord Kinross and D. Hales-Gary: Morocco (1971). Abdul Aziz (1830-76), Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, 1861-76: succeeded to the throne when his half-brother Abdul Mejid died from tuberculosis in June 1861. Abdul Aziz, a bearded giant weigh ing almost 150 kilos, was personally extravagant, spending huge sums on his Bosphorus palaces. The first ten years of his reign saw the completion of reforms in the banking system, higher education and provincial administration and the publication in 1869 of the Mecelle, a civil code of law. In 1867 Abdul Aziz became the first Sultan to visit western Europe; he was received in state in Paris, London and Vienna, and he returned home eager for his empire to acquire a railway system (begun in 1872-3) and an ironclad fleet. From 1871 onwards his absolutism became capricious, with lavish spending of personal funds, frequent paroxysms of fury, rapid changes of ministers, as well as problems caused by pan-Slav unrest in his Balkan provinces. In October 1875 the payment of interest on the Ottoman Debt was suspended, a virtual admission of state bankruptcy. On 30 May 1876 he was deposed by a military coup in favour of his nephew, who acceded (briefly) as Murad v. On 4

June Abdul Aziz was found dead in the Ciragan Palace, officially having slashed his wrists; it is more probable he was murdered. R.H.Davison: Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, 1963); A.Palmer: The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1992). Abdul Hamid II (1842-1918), Sultan of Turkey from 1876 to 1909: a younger son of Sultan Abdul Mejid (reigned 1839-61). His mother, suspected of infidelity, died mysteriously when the boy was 7, and he was neglected both in the reign of his father and of his successor, the boy’s uncle, ABDUL AZIZ. On 30 May 1876 Abdul Aziz was deposed and died five days later. Abdul Hamid’s elder brother, Murad v, had reigned for only twelve weeks when Turkey’s military and political leaders declared him to be insane and offered Abdul Hamid the throne on condition he granted his empire a constitution. First reports from ambassadors in Constantinople were favourable: the new Sultan was ‘conscientious’, ‘well-intentioned’ and ‘disposed to make economies’. Soon, however, he rescinded the constitution and ruled as an absolute monarch for over thirty years, having his opponents strangled or banished and living in daily expectation of finding his food poisoned or his palace seized by dissident young army officers. To counter the rapid decline of Turkish power in the Balkans, Abdul Hamid reasserted the Sultan’s claim to lead the Muslim world as ‘Caliph’, or ‘Defender of the Faith’. His failure to check the massacre of Christian Armenians by irregular bands of Kurdish cavalry in 1895-6 aroused the hostility of the British, Americans, French and Russians, and he achieved notoriety as ‘Sultan Abdul the Damned’. He retained a certain personal charm which he exercised on foreign diplomats and on the Kaiser, WILLIAM II, who befrien ded him from onwards. In 1900 Abdul Hamid announced his intention to construct a pilgrim’s railway from Damascus to Medina and Mecca, financed by voluntary contributions from pious Muslims. Such displays of Pan-Islamic sentiment made no impression on the ‘Young Turks’, a group of army officers who wished to modernize the State and who from 1902 onwards had links with influential Turks in exile. Mutiny in Salonika on 4 July 1908 was followed by the establishment of a ‘Committee of Union and Progress’ in Constantinople later in the month. Abdul Hamid agreed to restore the constitution of 1876 and summoned a parliament. When in April 1909 he attempted a counter-revolution, he was deposed by the Young Turks (led by ENVER) and exiled to Salonika. His 64-year-old brother succeeded him as Sultan Mohammed v (reigned 1909-20). Abdul Hamid was allowed to return to Constantinople in 1912, living there under house restraint until he died, of natural causes, on the eve of Turkey’s military defeat in 1918. E.Pears: The Life of Abdul Hamid (1917); J.Haslip: The Sultan (1958); A.Palmer: The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1992). Abdullah (1880-1951), ruler of Jordan as Emir or King from 1921 to 1951: born in Mecca, the son of Sherif Hussein ibn Ali, who ruled the Hijaz as Emir from 1909 and as King from 1916 to 1924. Abdullah spent most of the years 18911908 in Constantinople, returning there as parliamentary deputy for Mecca from 1912 to 1914. He assisted his father and his brother FAISAL in the Arab Revolt

of 1915-18 against Turkish rule, collaborating with T.E.LAWRENCE in guerrilla raids against garrisons holding the railway from Damascus to Medina. After the collapse of the Turkish Empire, Emir Abdullah became de facto ruler of ‘Trans-jordan’ in 1920, his position being regularized by the British in 1921 when he was accorded nominal sovereignty over the area of mandated territory east of the river Jordan and west of his brother’s kingdom of Iraq. Abdullah maintained cordial and tactful relations with the British colonial authorities, notably during the Second World War. On the expiration of the British mandate in May 1946 he became King of Transjordan, and in December 1948 a Pan-Arab Congress meeting in Jerusalem proclaimed him King of Palestine. No great power accorded him recognition and in June 1949 he contented himself, as an alternative, with sovereignty over the ‘Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan’, an area larger than inter-war Transjordan since it included a segment of Palestinian territory west of the river. Abdullah, a man of long experience and skill in negotiations, hoped to reach a settlement with the new Israel and in 1949-50 he held secret talks with MOSHE DAYAN at Shuneh. In Cairo, however, his independent traditionalism and his prestige among the Bedouin Arabs aroused resentment. On 20 July 1951 he was assassinated by a ‘modern’ Arab nationalist outside one of the Muslim holy places in Jerusalem. With him, and uninjured, was his 15-year-old grandson HUSSEIN, who was himself to become King of Jordan thirteen months later. N.H.Aruri: Jordan (The Hague, 1972); M.E.Wilson: King Abdullah, Britain and the Making of Jordan (1988). Abdullah, Sheikh Mohammed (1905-82), Kashmiri Muslim leader: emerged, at the age of 25, as the determined leader of those Muslims in his native Kashmir who sought a constitutional government from the ruling Hindu Maharajah. His persistence in pressing for both the British and the Hindu Prince to ‘quit Kashmir’ led to the Sheikh’s imprisonment by the British Indian government in 1931 and 1946; he was also imprisoned for alleged treason by the government of the Indian Republic from 1953 to 1968. From his Islamic compatriots, however, Sheikh Abdullah won lasting respect as ‘the Lion of Kashmir’. He always insisted on the right of the Kashmiri people ‘to decide the future of the State’ and was recognized as chief minister in Kashmir from 1947 until his arrest in 1953 and again from 1975 until his death. He was succeeded as minister in Kashmir by his son, Dr Farooq Abdullah (1937-). M.Abdullah: Flames of the Chinar, an Autobiography (New Delhi, 1993); R.C.Wirsings: India, Pakistan and the Kashmir Dispute (1994). Abdul Rahman Putra, Tunku (1903-90), Malaysian statesman: born in Alor Star, a son of the Sultan of Kedah. He was educated in Bangkok and at St Catharine’s College, Cambridge, and was later called to the bar of the Inner Temple. He was a district officer in the Kedah Civil Service during the 1930s and official ‘Director of Passive Defence’ during the Japanese occupation, 19425. He opposed the British Labour government’s proposed fusion of states and colonies into a Malayan Union and entered politics in the Federation of Malaya in 1949, working for independence as leader of the Malayan Nationalist Party

(UMNO), which absorbed other groups to form the Alliance Party a few years later. In December 1955 the Tunku led the delegation to London which negotiated independence, and on 31 August 1957 he became Malaya’s first Prime Minister. His political objectives extended beyond the peninsula to include North Borneo and Sarawak (and, originally, Singapore) in a federation of Malaysia, which was created in September 1963. As virtual founding-father of Malaysia, it was natural for the Tunku to serve as chief minister, especially as Malaysia was threatened by Indonesia’s policy of ‘confrontation’, a three-year guerilla campaign encouraged by President SUKARNO. With Commonwealth backing, the Tunku countered this threat but he was disappointed over Singapore. The island joined the federation at its inception but its people, overwhelmingly Chinese in origin, soon complained of Malay discrimination; under the leadership of LEE Kuan Yew, Singapore seceded from Malaysia on 9 August 1965. Increasingly, the Tunku allowed his strict Muslim code of conduct to influence his judgement, and he accepted office as Secretary-General of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers from 1969 until 1973. He recognized that anti-Chinese riots in Kuala Lumpur in May 1969 threatened the unity of the federation, and accordingly he retired from active politics in January 1970, though remaining a powerful influence on his successors. H.Miller: Prince and Premier (1959); M.N.Sopiee: From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation (Kuala Lumpur, 1974). Acheson, Dean Gooderham (1893-1971), US Secretary of State from 1949 to 1953: born in Connecticut, his mother being Canadian. He was educated at Groton, Yale and Harvard Law School and became a lawyer in New York City. At age 39 he was made Under-Secretary of the Treasury by Franklin ROOSEVELT but he resigned later in 1933 because the New Deal financial policies offended his innate conservatism. In August 1940 his public avowal of the President’s right to sell US destroyers to Britain without specific congressional approval pleased Roosevelt and he returned to government service as assistant to the Secretary of State, Cordell HULL, from 1941 to 1945. TRUMAN appointed Acheson Under-Secretary of State in his first administration and from 1947 onwards he was a powerful policy-maker. Thus it was Acheson who on 27 February 1947 outlined, in the State Department, the principles of what became known a month later as the ‘Truman Doctrine’, a policy seeking containment of Soviet influence by military and economic assistance to ‘free peoples’ threatened by a Communist takeover; and on 8 May 1947 Acheson made the first speech advocating the European aid programme associated in name with Secretary of State George MARSHALL. As the principal sponsor of America’s new role in defending western and southern Europe against the Soviet Union, it was natural that Acheson should succeed Marshall as Secretary of State, in January 1949. Yet although Acheson continued to build up NATO, he was criticized for neglecting the Chinese threat in the Far East until after war came to Korea in June 1950. In style, appearance and background Dean Acheson seemed an atypical American. His forthright

impatience with demagogic politics made him a butt for Senator MCCARTHY who alleged that the State Department under Acheson was full of ‘Reds’ and ‘liberal do-gooders’. After the Republican electoral triumph in 1952 Acheson withdrew from public life, but John KENNEDY treated him as a respected elder statesman and Acheson drafted important papers giving advice on foreign affairs in 1961, 1962 and 1963. Dean Acheson: Present at the Creation, My Years in the State Department (1969); D.Brinkley: Dean Acheson, The Cold War Years, 1953-71 (1992); D.Brinkley (ed.): Dean Acheson and the Making of US Foreign Policy (1993). Acton, Lord (John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton) (1834-1902), British historian: born in Naples, a member of a wealthy English Roman Catholic family. He was educated privately and travelled widely in Russia, America and Italy as well as spending many years at German universities, where he was influenced by the scientific scrutiny of archives introduced to historical studies by the great Leopold von Ranke, Professor of History in Berlin from 1825 to 1872. Acton, a close friend of GLADSTONE, sat as a Liberal in Parliament from 1859 to 1865 and was created Baron Acton in 1869. His erudition staggered the earnestminded mid-Victorians, none of whom doubted he had read and assessed all 59, 000 volumes in his private library. Respect for freedom of conscience impelled Acton to criticize the narrowly doctrinaire Catholicism of the Vatican Decrees in 1870 and the dogma of papal infallibility, although he never formally broke with his Church. In 1886 he helped found the English Historical Review, a scholarly periodical which served as a model for similar journals on both sides of the Atlantic. From 1895 to 1902 he was Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge. He planned the original Cambridge Modern History and yet wrote little himself: three volumes of lectures and essays were published post humously. His importance lies in his work as teacher and exemplar: against materialistic theories of historical struggle, he offered the claim that history was the unfolding of human freedom, asserting that its study should be treated as a quest for truth and insisting the historian has a moral duty to judge as well as to narrate. These imperatives were questioned by his successors in Britain and America, many of whom argued that selectivity of facts precludes impartial judgement. Yet Acton restored the prestigious dignity of historical thought in an increasingly scientific age while also widening the range of historical studies in the English-speaking community. G.P. Gooch: History and Historians of the Nineteenth Century (1952); D.Matthews: Lord Acton and his Times (1968). Adams, Gerard (Gerry) (1948-), Irish nationalist: born in Belfast, where he grew up in the Falls Road region and became active in the civil rights movement in the late 1960s. As a suspect member of the IRA he was interned at Long Kesh by the British authorities from 1972 to 1976 and from 1978 to 1983. In 1979 he became Vice-President of Sinn Féin, succeeding in 1983 as President of the movement. His popularity among Roman Catholics in his native city remained high: he was elected a Northen Ireland assembly member in 1982; and from 1983 until 1992 he was the elected Member of Parliament for Belfast West. But, in

accordance with Sinn Féin policy, he declined to take his seat either at Stormont or at Westminster. Under the Prevention of Terrorism Act he was banned from coming to the United Kingdom in October 1993. In the following year he gave cautious support to the peace initiative of the British and Irish governments, and he influenced the IRA to offer ‘a complete cessation of military operations’ on 31 August 1994, after twenty-five years of violence in Northern Ireland. Gerry Adams received an enthusiastic reception in New York as a guest for the St Patrick’s Day celebrations in March 1995 and met President CLINTON in Washington. Eleven months later, the IRA’s sudden return to a bombing campaign, while Adams was in America, raised doubts over his political influence. Gerry Adams: Falls Memories (Dingle, Co. Kerry, 1982) and Free Ireland, Towards A Lasting Peace (Dingle, Co. Kerry, rev. edn 1993); T.P.Coogan: The IRA (rev. edn 1985); P.Arthur and K. Jeffery: Northern Ireland since 1968 (Oxford, 1988). Addams Jane (1860-1935), American social worker and first woman awarded a Nobel Peace Prize: born into a deeply religious family from the Midwest (Cedarville, northern Illinois). She graduated from Rockford College, Illinois in 1881 and began the study of medicine in Philadelphia, when her health failed her. Subsequently she travelled widely in Europe and was deeply impressed by the work of the Toynbee Hall Settlement in Whitechapel, London. Her conscience was troubled by having to live prosperously and comfortably ‘shut off from the co mmon labor’ and she began to work in the slums of Chicago, helping immigrant and coloured families. In 1889 she established Hull House in Chicago which became a model settlement for social rescue activities throughout America. She collaborated with John ALTGELD, the reforming Governor of Illinois, from 1893 to 1897, sponsoring child labour laws, educational schemes for foreignborn adults, protection for immigrant girls and improved sanitary conditions. In 1899 she secured the establishment of separate juvenile courts in Illinois, a reform soon followed in other countries. Her tract The Spirit of Youth in the City Streets encouraged civic bodies to plan parks and playgrounds in their overcrowded towns. Politically she considered herself a progressive Republican but, from 1898 onwards, she was an active pacifist campaigner and an antiimperialist. She was a founder-member, in 1909, of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and, in her late sixties, led the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. It was for this activity, rather than for her world-famous social settlements, that she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1931, sharing the award with the President of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Dr Nicholas M.Butler, the head of Columbia University. J.Addams: Twenty Years of Hull House (New York, rev. edn 1960); J.C.Farrell: Beloved Lady (Baltimore, 1967); D.Levine: Jane Addams and the Liberal Tradition (Madison, 1971); J.W.Linn: Jane Addams (New York, 1935). Adenauer, Konrad (1876-1967), Chancellor of the Federal German Republic from 1949 to 1963: born in Cologne, where he practised law from the turn of the century and where he was Oberbürgermeister (Lord Mayor) from 1917 to 1933

and in 1945. He entered German national politics towards the end of the First World War as a member of the Centre Party, the strictly disciplined Roman Catholic political movement, and he presided over meetings of the Prussian State Council from 1920 until dismissed by the Nazis. In 1922 and 1926 he was a strong contender for the chancellorship but his candidacy was opposed by the influential STRESEMANN, who thought Adenauer had been too favourably disposed towards French plans for an autonomous Rhineland in 1919. On two occasions, in 1934 and 1944, Adenauer was imprisoned by the Nazis. Although the British occupation authorities dismissed him as Mayor for alleged ‘inefficiency’, he remained in public life and was principal founder of a new Catholic party, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), in 1947. His hostility towards communism ensured him substantial support in his native Rhineland; but the CDU was never so blatantly denominational as the old Centre Party and it offered a programme of free enterprise, secure employment and moderate conservatism to middle-class voters who were not always Catholics. After the CDU’s narrow victory in West Germany’s first election, Adenauer became Federal Chancellor by a single vote in September 1949. He rapidly strengthened both his personal prestige and his party-following and held office continuously until October 1963, a longer period of time than any German chancellor except BISMARCK. From 1951 to 1955 he was also Foreign Minister. He set himself two main objectives: economic recovery, and recognition from the British, Americans and French that his Germany was a partner in western Europe rather than a former enemy. He therefore supported every move towards European integration, notably the setting up of a Coal and Steel Community in April 1951 and of the Common Market in 1957. In May 1955 he secured formal acceptance by his European partners of the Federal Republic’s sovereign status, and West Germany was duly admitted to NATO. Four months later he visited Moscow and surprised his opponents within Germany by securing diplomatic recognition from the Soviet Union. In his later years he lost some support through disputes with his economic specialist and party rival, Ludwig ERHARD, and some CDU vo felt he accepted too readily the division of Germany as emphasized by the crisis over the Berlin Wall in 1961. Adenauer personally regarded his final success as the conclusion of a Franco-German Treaty of Friendship, signed by DE GAULLE and himself on 22 January 1963, and marking-as he hoped-the end of a century of hostility and suspicion between the two nations. Even after his resignation as Chancellor, Adenauer continued as leader of the CDU for two and a half years, a source of political embarrassment to his successor as Chancellor, Erhard. T.Prittie: Konrad Adenauer (1972); R.Hiscocks: Germany Revived, an Appraisal of the Adenauer Era (1966); A.Grosser: Germany in Our Time (1974). Aga Khan III (Aga Sultan Sir Mohammed Shah), (1877-1957), Indian statesman and Muslim religious leader: born in Karachi. He succeeded his father as Aga Khan at the age of 8 but could not be accepted as (forty-eighth) Imam of the Ismaili sect of Muslims until 1893, thereafter remaining until his death effective leader of over twelve million Muslims, living in widely separated

regions of three continents. He urged his followers to integrate socially and politically within the communities where they lived. In England the Aga Khan was best known for his stable of racehorses, five of whom won the Derby; but from the turn of the century until the Second World War he played an active role in British Indian affairs: he served on the Viceroy’s Legislative Council from 1902. to 1904, became Founder-President of the All-India Muslim League in 1906, and led the British India delegation to the Round Table Conferences on the future of India in London, both in 1930 and in 1932; he also went to Geneva as chief Indian delegate to the League of Nations Assembly in 1932 and from 1935 to 1937. During the First World War he used his standing as a spiritual leader to counter Ottoman attempts to raise the Muslims in a holy war against the British and their allies; he was especially influential in Egypt, where there was a large Ismaili community. Among the philanthropic enterprises which the Aga Khan sponsored was the Aligarh Muslim University in Uttar Pradesh, of which he was the virtual founder. His spiritual authority was never in question, but his political influence in the Indian subcontinent declined with the rise of JINNAH and with Partition. He spent most of his later years in Egypt or in Europe, and died in Switzerland. He was buried in an impressive tomb at Aswan, in Upper Egypt. The Memories of the Aga Khan (1954); M. Bose: The Aga Khans (Kingswood, 1984); A.Edwards: Throne of Gold, the Lives of the Aga Khans (1995). Aguinaldo, Emilio (1869-1964), Filipino revolutionary: born on Luzon Island when the Philippines were still a Spanish colony. He became a militant nationalist in his twenties and for twelve months led an armed rebellion against the Spanish authorities until, in 1896, he accepted from them a substantial sum of money (which he used on building up a more effective movement) and went into exile in Hong Kong. When war broke out between Spain and the United States in April 1898, an American vessel secretly landed ‘General’ Aguinaldo on Luzon and he organized guerrilla resistance around Manila, seeking to establish a ‘Visayan Republic’ as a first step to independence in the Philippines. Admiral DEWEY, however, found collaboration with Aguinaldo difficult and a war began between Aguinaldo’s followers and American troops in February 1899 which dragged on for two years, costing the lives of over 4,000 Americans and more than twice as many Filipinos. Aguinaldo accepted American rule in July 1901 and, with his followers, received an amnesty from the Governor-General, the later President TAFT. For forty years Aguinal-do continued to press for total independence, unsuccessfully standing for the presidency of the Philippines when the islands became an autonomous commonwealth in 1935. He collaborated with the Japanese on Luzon during the Second World War and was imprisoned by the Americans when they reoccupied Manila in February 1945 but released six months later. He spent his last years in private life, respected as a legendary rebel leader, the Filipino Garibaldi. F.H. Golay (ed.): The United States and the Philippines (1966); E.Wildman: Aguinaldo (Boston, 1903). Aitken, William Maxwell: see Beaverbrook.