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Caillaux, Joseph (1863-1944), influential French politician from 1899 to 1937: born at Le Mans, became an inspector of taxes and entered the Chamber of Deputies as a moderate Republican in 1898. His knowledge of taxation led to his appointment as Minister of Finance in 1899, an office he held until 1902. Caillaux’s personal politics moved to the Left and it was as a Radical Socialist that he sat in the government of CLEMENCEAU from 1906 to 1909, again serving as Minister of Finance. In 1909 he successfully steered an income tax bill through a largely hostile Chamber, although he could not secure the passage of so ‘unFrench’ a measure through the Senate. For the last six months of the year 1911 Caillaux was Prime Minister, seeking a colonial settlement with Germany after the Agadir crisis over French penetration of Morocco. He was again Minister of Finance in 1913 and 1914. On 16 March 1914 the second Mme Caillaux shot dead the editor of the newspaper Figaro for publishing private letters discreditable to her husband and supplied by the first Mme Caillaux: the assassin was acquitted at her trial. Caillaux’s advocacy of a compromise peace with Germany led to his arrest by the Clemenceau government in 1917: he was imprisoned, deprived of political rights and was fortunate to escape execution on a treason charge. By 1925 he had recovered his rights, sitting in the Senate for his native département until 1940, and holding office briefly on three more occasions as Minister of Finance. He used his parliamentary experience to marshal opposition in the Senate to the taxation proposals of the ‘Popular Front’ government formed by BLUM in 1936. Caillaux was a characteristic representative of what a political critic derisively nicknamed the ‘Republic of Pals’. P.Shankland: Death of an Editor (1981); R.M.Watt: Dare Call It Treason (New York, 1963); T.Zeldin: France 1848-1945, Vol. 1 (Oxford, 1973). Callaghan, (Leonard) James (1912-), British Prime Minister from 1976 to 1979: born and educated at Portsmouth, worked for the Inland Revenue in the 1930s and served in the Royal Navy in the Second World War. He was elected Labour MP for South Cardiff in 1945, the constituency boundaries being changed soon afterwards and renamed Cardiff South-East. He won that seat in the ten following General Elections. From 1947 to 1951 he held minor offices at the Ministry of Transport and the Admiralty and in 1963 was an ‘outsider’ in the contest for party leadership, won by Harold WILSON, under whom Callaghan

served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1964 to 1967, Home Secretary from 1967 to 1970, and Foreign Secretary when Labour returned to office in February 1974. Callaghan, a ‘centre of the road’ socialist, stood once more for the party leadership on the eve of Wilson’s resignation, winning on the third ballot. On 5 April 1976 he became the first former naval officer to head a British government. As Prime Minister he began to gain considerable popularity, his calm avuncular manner suggesting a security which was in contrast to the gloom of political commentators. These pundits he confounded on 7 September 1978 by announcing he would not call the autumn General Election which the Press had predicted. This was a tactical error. A winter of unofficial strikes weakened the standing of his government, which was defeated on a vote of no confidence on 28 March 1979. He resigned on 4 May, after defeat in the previous day’s General Election, but remained leader of the Opposition to THATCHER until 15 October 1980, when he resigned the party leadership. Callaghan remained in the Commons until he received a life peerage in June 1987. J. Callaghan: Time and Chance (1987); H. Pelling: A Short History of the Labour Party (10th edn 1993); D.Kavanagh (ed.): The Politics of the Labour Party (1982). Calles, Plutarco Elias (1877-1945), Mexican President from 1924-8: born in Sonora province, took part in the overthrow of DIAZ in 1910 and was active as a left-wing revolutionary until becoming President in December 1924. His fouryear term of office failed to implement promised reforms but was marked by extreme anti-clericalism. Subsequently ex-President Calles sought to shape Mexican policy indirectly, through nominees to office and by setting up a National Revolutionary Party (1929). But his ambitions were thwarted by his former protégé, General CARDENAS, who became President in 1934. Calles went into exile in the United States from 1936 to 1941 but, though he received American backing against the alleged communist Cardenas, he never recovered his old primacy in Mexico’s affairs. F.Brandenburg: The Making of Modern Mexico (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1966). Campbell-Bannerman, Henry (1836-1908), British Prime Minister from 1905 to 1908: born in Glasgow, the son of Sir James Campbell, a Lord Provost of Glasgow. He was known as Henry Campbell when at Glasgow High School, Trinity College, Cambridge, and on election as Liberal MP for Stirling Burghs in 1868, a seat he held until his death. In 1871 he inherited property from an uncle and added the additional surname Bannerman. In 1886 ‘C-B’ entered the Cabinet of GLADSTONE as War Secretary, holding that office again from 1892 to 1895. He was knighted in the resignation honours of 1895. Sir Henry was a man of common sense, not a good speaker but respected for calmly adhering to his principles. In 1898 he became Liberal leader in the Commons, principally because he had fewer enemies than any betterknown colleague. He sympathized with the more progressive members of the Liberal Party, supporting their demands for social reform and their condemnation of the ‘imperialist’ war against the Boers in South Africa, but he was judicial and cautious in his comments. When he became Prime Minister in December 1905 his government

faithfully followed the precepts he laid down in Opposition: land reforms, trade union reforms, reconciliation with the South Africans. Illhealth forced his resignation in the first week of April 1908, and he was succeeded by ASQUITH. Campbell-Bannerman died, still living in the Prime Minister’s official residence, on 22 April 1908. J.Wilson: C.B.: a Life of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1973); J.A.Spender: Sir Henry Campbell Bannerman G.C.B. (1923). Cardenas, Lazaro (1895-1970), Mexican President from 1934 to 1940: born, a peasant’s son, at Jiquilpan in Michoacan province. He supported Mexico’s progressive revolutionaries as an active soldier from 1913 onwards, reaching the rank of General at the age of 28 and serving as Governor of his native province from 1928-32 under the patronage of exPresident CALLES. Cardenas was too strong a personality to remain Calles’ puppet. He assumed office as President on 1 December 1934 and implemented long-promised reforms, including women’s suffrage and improved church-state relations. He embarked on major projects for land redistribution, as well as nationalization of railways and the sugar industry. When foreign oil companies declined to raise the wages of their workers, General Cardenas expropriated American, British and Dutch oil properties, placing them under the co-managment of the powerful Trade Union Federation. This action led to strained relations abroad. At the same time Cardenas warmly supported republican Spain in the Civil War and in 1936 he offered TROTSKY political asylum. He survived several uprisings, encouraged by Calles from the USA. Cardenas fulfilled his full six-year term, handing over the presidency to the less radical General Manuel Camacho on 30 November 1940. F. Brandenburg: The Making of Modern Mexico (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1966). Cardwell, Edward (1813-86), British Liberal politician who modernized the army: born in Liverpool, educated at Winchester and at Balliol College, Oxford. He entered Parliament, as a supporter of Sir Robert Peel, as Member for Clitheroe in 1842, subsequently becoming a Gladstonian Liberal and holding minor office under PALMERSTON from 1852 to 1855. Four years later Cardwell entered the Cabinet as Chief Secretary for Ireland (1859-66). In the closing weeks of 1868 GLADSTONE appointed him Secretary for War. He concentrated over the following six years on modernizing the British army. No previous British war minister had reorganized or reformed the army so drastically. Cardwell introduced short-service enlistment, abolished flogging and other savage penalties, abandoned the practice of allowing commissions to be purchased, established a linked battalion system so as to provide an equitable policy for service overseas, withdrew garrisons from self-governing colonies and equipped the infantry with new and efficient rifles. He was created a Viscount in 1874 but took little further part in public life. R.Biddulph: Lord Cardwell at the War Office (1904); C.Barnettt: Britain and Her Army 1509-1970 (1970). Carol II (1893-1953), King of Romania from 1930 to 1940: born in Sinaia, the eldest son of Ferdinand of Romania (1865-1927, King from 1914 to his death) and his consort, Marie (1875-1938), a daughter of Queen Victoria’s second son, Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. While serving as an officer in the last stages of the

First World War, Crown Prince Carol’s private life became so scandalous that the King threatened him with forfeiture of the succession. By 1921 he had settled down sufficiently to marry Princess Helen of Greece, a son, Michael, being born to them at the end of the same year. In 1923, however, Carol met Magda Lupescu, the wife of an army officer and daughter of a Jewish chemist from Jassy. When she became Carol’ s mistress, King Ferdinand carried out his threat and barred him from the succession. Carol and Magda Lupescu lived together in Switzerland from 1925 to 1930, Carol’s marriage to Princess Helen being dissolved in 1928. On King Ferdinand’s death, a Council of Regency was established for the 6-year-old Michael, but in June 1930 Carol suddenly flew to Bucharest and was proclaimed King, with the support of the much-respected leader of the National Party, the Prime Minister Juliu Maniu. Romania retained the parliamentary apparatus of a westernized democracy until 1937 when Carol’s admiration for MUSSOLINI prompted him to set up a thinly disguised royal dictatorship, with all political parties banned from February 1938 onwards. He tried to strike diplomatic bargains with the rival Great Powers, using his country’s resources in oil and wheat as counters, but he was too distant from France and Britain and too easily outwitted by the European dictators for his policy to succeed. Between June and August 1940 he was forced to retrocede Romanian territory to Hungary, Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. This humiliation turned the Romanian Army and people against him. Effective power passed into the hands of General ANTONESCU. King Carol abdicated in his son’s favour on 6 September 1940, spending his remaining years in exile with Magda Lupescu. They were married shortly before his death. A.L. Easterman: King Carol, Hitler and Lupescu (1942); R.L.Wolff: The Balkans in Our Time (1956); K.Hitchins: Rumania, 1866-1947 (Oxford, 1994). Carrington, Lord (Peter Alexander Rupert) (1919-), British Conservative politician: eldest son of the fifth Baron Carrington, whom he succeeded in 1938. He was educated at Eton and the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, serving in the Grenadier Guards in Europe during the Second World War; as Major, awarded the Military Cross in 1945. He held junior office under CHURCHILL and EDEN (1951-6), was High Commissioner in Australia for three years and then entered the MACMILLAN government in October 1959 as First Lord of the Admiralty. Under DOUGLAS-HOME Carrington was Leader of the House of Lords and he served HEATH as Defence Secretary 1970-4. In THATCHER’S faltering early years (1979-82) he was Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary, helping to establish independence for Zimbabwe and strengthening NATO. He resigned in April 1982, after the surprise Argentinian assault on the Falkland Islands. From 1984 to 1988 he was Secretary-General of NATO. In early August 1991 Lord Carrington began twelve months as EC mediator in the former Yugoslav lands. His proposals sought to retain a loose Yugoslav federal cohesion, but with disputed areas safeguarded within a ‘cantonal’ structure. His plan was unacceptable to the main belligerents; in August 1992 Lord OWEN

succeeded him as EC medi ator. P.Carrington: Reflections Upon Things Past (1988); P.Cosgrave: Carrington; a Life and a Policy (1985). Carson, Edward Henry (1854-1935), barrister and Ulster Unionist leader from 1910 to 1914: born in Dublin, entered Parliament as Unionist MP for Dublin University in 1892. His fame as an advocate sprang from his handling of a number of cases in the late 1890s, notably his cross-examination of Oscar Wilde in 1895. He became Solicitor-General (with a knighthood) under SALISBURY in 1900, holding the office until December 1905. Fears that the Liberals intended to impose Home Rule on Ireland led Carson in 1910 to begin organizing resistance to Home Rule both in England and in Ulster. By 1912 he was leader of a private army of 80,000 men, the Ulster Volunteers, threatening rebellion. He served under ASQUITH as Attorney-General from May to October 1915 but found the Prime Minister antipathetic. LLOYD GEORGE appointed Carson First Lord of the Admiralty in December 1916 but he was not an effective departmental chief, and in July 1917 he was brought into the War Cabinet as minister without portfolio. Here, however, he proved an uneasy colleague and resigned in January 1918, finding it easier to criticize the government than give full support to Lloyd George once he discovered that he was drafting an allIreland Home Rule Bill. He sat as MP for Belfast, Duncairn 1918-21, seeking a compromise over Ulster, but he resigned as Unionist leader and spokesman in 1921, giving his main interests once more to the lawcourts. As Baron Carson of Duncairn he was a Lord Appeal from 1921 to 1929. H.Montgomery Hyde: Carson (1953); A.T.Q.Stewart: The Ulster Crisis (1967). Carter, James Earl (1924-), President of the United States, 1977-81: born in Archery, Georgia. From South Western College he entered the Naval Academy, Annapolis, and was commissioned in 1947, serving six years. In 1953 he returned to Georgia, sitting as a State Senator in Atlanta from 1962 to 1966. He was elected Governor of Georgia in 1971, gained the Democratic Party’s nomination for the presidency at the New York Convention in July 1976 and defeated the sitting Republican President Gerald FORD in the presidential election of 3 November 1976, Carter gaining 51 per cent of the popular vote. His lack of experience of Washington politics weakened his control of domestic affairs and he suffered from an economic recession and from an energy crisis caused by the contraction of oil supplies in 1979. At first Carter was more successful in international affairs: his long series of meetings with President SADAT and Menachem BEGIN at Camp David in Maryland, 5-17 September 1978, enabled a peace treaty to be concluded between Egypt and Israel; and in June 1979 he reached agreement with the Russians over strategic arms limitation. But the seizure of American hostages by Iranian students (4 November 1979), and the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan posed major problems for his administration in an election year and he was decisively defeated by the Republican, Ronald REAGAN, in the presidential election of November 1980. In 1994-5 Carter’s reputation as an elder statesman enabled him to assist President CLINTON as an international mediator. J. Dumbrell: The Carter Presidency

(Manchester, 1993); L. H.Shoup: The Carter Presidency and Beyond (New York, 1980). Casement, Roger (1864-1916), Irish patriot: born in Dun Laoghaire (then known as Kingstown), and was in the British consular service from 1892 to 1911. Reports on the atrocious treatment of native workers in the Congo and Brazil won him high commendation in London and he was knighted in 1911. Ulster re sistance to Home Rule proposals stimulated his sense of Irish nationalism. He went to America in 1914, travelling from New York to Berlin shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in order to secure German aid for Irish independence. For eighteen months he tried to raise a free Irish brigade from among prisoners-of-war in Germany. On 21 April 1916 he landed from a German U-boat near Tralee, apparently hoping to prevent a rebellion from taking place two days later since he knew that the Germans could not give the ‘Easter Rising’ military support at that stage of the war. Casement was arrested within a few hours of coming ashore. He was convicted of high treason in a trial at the Old Bailey. The so-called ‘Black Diaries’, containing homosexual passages and erotic fantasies, were circulated by British agents among groups likely to press for Casement’s reprieve. He was hanged on 3 August 1916. B.Inglis: Roger Casement (1973); R.Kee: The Green Flag, Vol. 2 (1972). Castro, Fidel (1927-), Cuban revolutionary leader: born near Santiago de Cuba, the son of a sugar planter. He practised law in Havana from 1949 to 1953, but was imprisoned for two years after leading an unsuccessful armed revolt against the Moncada Barracks on 26 July 1953. In 1955 he was freed, under an amnesty, and allowed to go into exile, spending most of the following twelve months in Mexico and organizing resistance among Cuban liberals and radicals to the capricious regime of BATISTA. He landed secretly with eighty followers in eastern Cuba on 2 December 1956. Thereafter for eighteen months Castro and his ‘26 July Movement’ waged a guerrilla war against Batista from a secret base in the Sierra Maestra. Gradually Castro won for himself the reputation of a revolutionary saviour so that when, in March 1958, he called for ‘total war’ against Batista he received support from many different sources, some far less sympathetic to socialism than was Castro himself. He entered Havana triumphantly on 8 January 1959 and took office as Prime Minister a month later. Close contacts with the Soviet Union and China-encouraged by his President of the Cuban National Bank, Che GUEVARA-alarmed the United States even though the Americans had at first welcomed his elimination of Batista. In April 1961 the American-sponsored landing of émigrés in the Bay of Pigs failed so absurdly that it increased Castro’s prestige, as well as confirming his suspicion of American intentions. In December 1961 Castro delivered a speech in which he claimed to have been a Marxist-Leninist since his days as a student at Havana University. The individualistic character of Castro’s revolutionary socialism was shown a year later when he took the opportunity of denouncing the narrowly doctrinaire orthodoxy of the recognized Cuban communist leader, Anibale Escalante, whom Castro sent into exile. But the year 1962 saw the closest

collaboration between Moscow and Havana, with Soviet military experts stationed in Cuba and with world peace in jeopardy when President KENNEDY reacted firmly to the threatened installation of Soviet missiles. Castro’s backing for urban guerrillas in Central and South America and his encouragement of liberation movements in Africa showed, at times, an independence in world policy which alarmed his Soviet allies. On the other hand, Castro’s Cuba became in 1972 the first state in the western hemisphere to join the Soviet-sponsored economic community, Comecon, and Cuban troops collaborated closely with Soviet advisers in Angola and Ethiopia during 1977-8. Castro strengthened his position within Cuba by the revised constitution of February 1976, which enabled him to become on 2 November 1976 both President of the Council of State and head of government, the Vice-President being his younger brother, Raoul. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the recall of Cuban ‘volunteers’ from Africa and to minor changes in Castro’s style of government, but the (allcommunist) National Assembly duly re-elected him as head of state and government for a further five-year term in March 1993. The last Russian combat troops left Cuba four months later, after thirty-one years of Soviet military presence on the island. H.Thomas: The Cuban Revolution (1977), The Cuban Revolution 25 Years Later (Epping, 1984); S.Balfour: Castro (2nd edn 1995); J.O’Connor: The Origins of Socialism in Cuba (1970); J.I. Dominguez: Cuba, Order and Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1978). Catt, Carrie Chapman (1859-1947), American suffragette: born in Ripon, Wisconsin, educated at Iowa State College and became a superintendent of schools. She succeeded Susan ANTHONY as champion of women’s suffrage, although she was by nature more conservative and less militant than her predecessor. Carrie Catt was President of the National American Woman Suffrage Association from 1900 to 1904 and from 1915 until her death. Her constant pressure on members of Congress and on the Executive secured passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution (proposed May 1919, ratified August 1920) declaring that ‘the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied…on account of sex’. Thereafter she organized the League of Women Voters so as to ensure that American women were prepared to use responsibly the suffrage they had won. R.B. Fowler: Carrie Catt, Feminist Politician (Boston, 1986). Cavour, Camillo (1810-61), first Prime Minister of a united Italy: born in Turin, his family belonging to the Piedmontese aristocracy. At the age of 2.1 he resigned his commission in the army because of his liberal views, disapproving of the repressive policies imposed by the Piedmontese government, of which his father was a member. He then concentrated on improving the yield of the family estates by scientific farming and visited both Britain and France, also studying their political systems. He championed the idea of Italian unity in a newspaper, Il Risorgimento, which he established in 1847, and he entered the Piedmontese parliament in June 1848, holding several ministerial posts from 1850 to November 1852 when he was invited by King Victor EMMANUEL II to form a

government. At first, Count Cavour concentrated on modernizing the finances and commercial system of Piedmont but he then began to enlarge the army and construct roads, railways and canals which would be of strategic value in any war. His government also sought to curb clerical influence and secure for the state some of the Church’s wealth. Cavour believed in a unified Italian kingdom ruled by the Piedmontese dynasty, the House of Savoy, but he was convinced Italy could only be ‘made’ through outside help. In order to raise the Italian Question at the subsequent peace conference Cavour encouraged Victor Emmanuel to enter the Crimean War as France’s ally in 1855. Three years later (July 1858) Cavour met NAPOLEON III at Plombières and concluded with him a secret agreement: France would receive Savoy and Nice from Piedmont in return for military help against Austria in a war to create a unified north Italian kingdom which would include Lombardy-Venetia, liberated from Austrian rule. Cavour provoked the Austrians to attack Piedmont in April 1859 but the heavy casualties of the subsequent battles at Magenta and Solferino induced Napoleon to conclude a premature peace, the Armistice of Villafranca, on 11 July 1859. He se Lombardy for Piedmont but Venetia remained under Austrian rule.