ABSTRACT
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death worldwide [1]. Despite increased efforts toward prevention, early detection, and myriad of antismoking campaigns, lung cancer accounts for 15% of all new cancers [2]. The addictive power of nicotine and the risk of lung cancer persist for many years after smoking cessation [1]. About 14%–58% of smoking lung cancer patients continue to smoke after the diagnosis [3]. Passive smokers (environmental cigarette smoke-exposed individuals, smoker’s spouses, and children) are also at an increased risk of lung cancer [4]. The incidence of lung cancer among nonsmoking women has recently increased, due to unknown factors [5]. Besides smoking, diet and nutrition are other strong determinants of lung
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 171 Lung Cancer ........................................................................................................... 172 Vitamin A and Retinoids ........................................................................................ 174 Carotenoids ............................................................................................................ 175 Carotenoids and Lung Cancer ................................................................................ 175
Human Studies of Carotenoids.......................................................................... 175 Animal Studies of Carotenoids ......................................................................... 178
Retinoids and Lung Cancer .................................................................................... 181 Human Studies of Retinoids.............................................................................. 181 Animal Studies of Retinoids ............................................................................. 184
Potential Mechanisms of Carotenoids and Retinoids on Lung Carcinogenesis .... 187 Acting on the Retinoid Receptors ..................................................................... 187 Acting as Antioxidants and Pro-Oxidants ......................................................... 188 Modulating Pathways in Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis ............................... 188 Suppressing Inammation ................................................................................. 190 Inducing Phase I and II Enzymes ...................................................................... 191 Modulating Cell-to-Cell Communication ......................................................... 191
Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 192 References .............................................................................................................. 193
cancer risk [6]. Unfortunately, current lung cancer treatments do not offer much benet [5]. Further, the compounding frustration is that the 5 year survival rate has not improved in three decades [7]. This emphasizes the importance of understanding the molecular mechanism of lung carcinogenesis and the development of an effective dietary chemopreventive agent against lung cancer risk.
