ABSTRACT
As we have seen throughout the previous chapters, systems science studies systems and systemhood as its objects, while systems commonly exist in nature and human societies. In terms of a comparison with the conventional science, it can be seen that when the entity of study is seen as an object without size and volume, known traditionally as a particle, one can conveniently employ the concept of numbers, quantitative variables, and relevant theories based on calculus. However, when the entity does have its internal structure, as such internal structure becomes important and not ignorable in the research, one has to deal with systems instead of sizeless and volumeless particles.
