ABSTRACT
CONTENTS 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 77 3.2 Radionuclides in the Environment .................................................................................. 78 3.3 Detectors............................................................................................................................... 79
3.3.1 Gamma Detectors ................................................................................................... 80 3.3.2 Alpha Detectors....................................................................................................... 81 3.3.3 Beta Detectors .......................................................................................................... 82 3.3.4 Mass Spectrometers................................................................................................ 82 3.3.5 Decay Counting and ICP-MS................................................................................ 84
3.4 Separation Techniques ....................................................................................................... 84 3.5 Applications to Extraction Chromatography................................................................. 85 3.6 Applications of Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry ............................ 88 3.7 Application of Rad-Disk Technology .............................................................................. 89
3.7.1 Strontium.................................................................................................................. 89 3.7.2 Radium ..................................................................................................................... 90 3.7.3 Technetium-99 ......................................................................................................... 91 3.7.4 Bismuth and Polonium .......................................................................................... 91
3.8 Measuring Disequilibrium in Aqueous Samples .......................................................... 91 References ..................................................................................................................................... 92
Many nations are facing the challenge of cleaning up and protecting our environment. The concern over radionuclides in the environment is based on the possible health hazards caused by emitted ionizing radiation, especially in situations where radionuclides are taken into the body through ingestion, inhalation, or absorption. The magnitude of the hazard depends on the distribution of radionuclides within the body, the length of time they are retained in the body, and the energy type of the emitted radiation. The initial reactions of radiation in the body will involve hydrogen-oxygen chemical species. Other interactions resulting from the exposure to large amounts of ionization radiation may produce cancer (bone cancer and leukemias), genetic effects, damage to the blood vessels, induction of cataracts of the eye lenses, and infertility. Techniques and methods of chemical characterization and monitoring are essential in the execution of control programs to minimize health hazards. Research and development efforts can
translate into new technologies for detection of radionuclides and improvements in environmental cleanup. These efforts are measured by (1) reductions in the unit cost (by doing fewer steps in the analysis), (2) reductions in the time required to provide the information to the user, or (3) improvements in the quality of the information provided. The desired characteristics of any new methods are the following: faster, to reduce turnaround times; cheaper, to reduce the cost of characterization; performs better, to achieve desired data quality objectives; minimizes the generation of secondary mixed waste through reduction of scale and elimination of steps; moves toward real-time analysis; and speeds site characterization.
