ABSTRACT
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Amphibian Immunotoxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Amphibian Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Immunotoxic Effects of Environmental Chemicals on Amphibian Embryos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Immunotoxic Effects of Environmental Chemicals on Amphibian Tadpoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Immunotoxic Effects of Environmental Chemicals on Adult Amphibians . . 388
Fish Immunotoxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Basic Fish Immunology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Assessing Immune Function in Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Relationships Between Contaminants and Immune Dysfunction in Fishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Suggested Approach to Immunotoxicity Testing in Fishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Avian Immunotoxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Avian Immunology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Toxic Effects of Environmental Contaminants on Immune Organs, Cells, and Plasma Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Toxic Effects of Environmental Contaminants on Immune Function . . . . . . 394 Ecological Relevance of Immunosuppression in Wild Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Some Unanswered Questions: Opportunities for Future Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Among wildlife groups, amphibians, fi sh, and birds are of importance for immunotoxicological studies because all three groups are sensitive bioindicators of ecosystem health. Their immune systems are nearly as complex as those of mammalian species, and harmful effects of environmental chemicals on their immune defenses can suggest potential danger for humans who are exposed to similar chemicals. What follows is an introduction to immunotoxicology in each of these vertebrate groups with references to review articles that provide greater detail.
