ABSTRACT
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Toll-like receptor (TLR) family members are pattern recognition receptors that function to initiate innate immune responses against many microbial pathogens, and consequently trigger the induction of adaptive immune responses.1 TLRs are receptors prominently expressed on antigen-presenting cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, cells critical for initiating immune responses. TLRs are also found on T and B lymphocytes, and their respective ligands affect T and B cell function by modulating cellular proliferation, differentiation, and cytokine secretion.2-4 TLR signaling triggers activation of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway, stimulates mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) leading to AP1 activation, and induces type I interferon production.1
