ABSTRACT
Water Contaminated with Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 24.2.10 Additional Technical Considerations Associated with
Remediating Sites Contaminated with Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 24.3 Overview of Treatment Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
24.3.1 Types of Remediation Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 24.3.2 Performance of Remediation Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 24.3.3 Costs of Remediation Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 24.3.4 Factors to Be Considered When Identifying
Technologies to Treat Fuel Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 24.4 Air Sparging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
24.4.1 Air Sparging Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000 24.4.2 Effect of the Properties of MTBE and Other Oxygenates on Treatment . . . . 1002 24.4.3 Application of Air Sparging to Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004 24.4.4 Types of Projects Used in Air Sparging Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . 1004 24.4.5 Performance of Air Sparging in Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004 24.4.6 Costs of Air Sparging Treatment of MTBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 24.4.7 Factors That Affect the Performance and Cost of Oxygenate
Treatment Using Air Sparging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 24.4.8 Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 24.4.9 Example Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
24.5 Soil Vapor Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006 24.5.1 SVE Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006 24.5.2 Effect of the Properties of MTBE and Other Oxygenates on Treatment . . . . 1007 24.5.3 Application of SVE to Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 24.5.4 Types of Projects Used in SVE Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
1009 24.5.6 Costs of SVE Treatment of MTBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 24.5.7 Factors That Affect the Performance and Cost of Oxygenate
Treatment Using SVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 24.5.8 Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 24.5.9 Example Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
24.6 Multiphase Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 24.6.1 MPE Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 24.6.2 Effect of the Properties of MTBE and Other Oxygenates on Treatment . . . . 1011 24.6.3 Application of MPE to Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012 24.6.4 Types of Projects Used in MPE Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 24.6.5 Performance of MPE in Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 24.6.6 Costs of MPE Treatment of MTBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 24.6.7 Factors That Affect the Performance and Cost of Oxygenate
Treatment Using MPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 24.6.8 Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 24.6.9 Example Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
24.7 In Situ Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 24.7.1 Bioremediation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 24.7.2 Effects of the Properties of MTBE and Other Oxygenates on Treatment . . . 1016 24.7.3 Application of Bioremediation to Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018 24.7.4 Types of Projects Used in Bioremediation Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . 1020 24.7.5 Performance of In Situ Bioremediation in Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . 1020 24.7.6 Costs of In Situ Bioremediation Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 24.7.7 Factors That Affect the Performance and Cost of
Oxygenate Treatment Using In Situ Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 24.7.8 Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 24.7.9 Example Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
24.8. In Situ Chemical Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024 24.8.1 ISCO Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024 24.8.2 Effect of the Properties of MTBE and Other Oxygenates on Treatment . . . . 1024 24.8.3 Application of ISCO to Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 24.8.4 Types of Projects Used in ISCO Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 24.8.5 Performance of ISCO in Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 24.8.6 Costs of ISCO Treatment of MTBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028 24.8.7 Factors That Affect the Performance and Cost of Oxygenate
Treatment Using ISCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028 24.8.8 Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029 24.8.9 Example Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
24.9 Groundwater Pump-and-Treat and Drinking Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 24.9.1 Groundwater Extraction for Pump-and-Treat and Drinking Water Treatment 1030 24.9.2 Effect of the Properties of MTBE and Other Oxygenates on
Groundwater Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 24.9.3 Application of Pump-and-Treat to Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 24.9.4 Types of Projects Used in Pump-and-Treat for Treatment of Oxygenates . . . 1031 24.9.5 Performance of Pump-and-Treat in Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 24.9.6 Costs of Pump-and-Treat for Treatment of MTBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033 24.9.7 Factors That Affect the Performance and Cost of Oxygenate
Treatment Using Pump-and-Treat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034 24.9.8 Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034 24.9.9 Example Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Drinking Water Treatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036 24.10.1 Ground Treatment of Extracted Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036 24.10.2 Effect of the Properties of MTBE and Other Oxygenates on Treatment . . . . 1036 24.10.3 Technologies Used for Aboveground Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . 1038 24.10.4 Types of Projects That Used Aboveground Treatment of
Extracted Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040 24.10.5 Performance of Technologies in Aboveground
Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 24.10.6 Costs of Pump-and-Treat for Treatment of MTBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 24.10.7 Factors That Affect the Performance and Cost of Aboveground
Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 24.10.8 Treatability and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 24.10.9 Example Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
24.11 Phytoremediation, PRBs, and Thermal Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 24.11.1 Other Technologies Used in Treatment of MTBE and Other Oxygenates . . . 1044 24.11.2 Phytoremediation Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 24.11.3 PRBs Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 24.11.4 In Situ Thermal Treatment of Oxygenates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 24.11.5 Advantages and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
24.12 Nontreatment Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046 24.12.1 Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046 24.12.2 Free Product Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047 24.12.3 Monitored Natural Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047 24.12.4 Institutional Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
Fuel oxygenates, including methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), have been widely used in the United States for the past several decades as an additive to gasoline intended either to boost octane ratings or to reduce air pollution. The gasoline containing these oxygenates has been stored in aboveground and underground storage tanks (ASTs and USTs) at a wide range of facilities, including re neries, terminals, service stations, and by end users; gasoline has been transported throughout the United States via pipeline, barge, rail, and truck. As a result of leaks and spills, MTBE, other fuel oxygenates, and other gasoline components have been found in soil and groundwater at these sites. Federal and state studies have found that these components, including MTBE, have reached drinking water sources in many locations, including areas where the use of oxygenated fuel has not been mandated.
