ABSTRACT
Biotechnologies have evolved over the past 20 years from intellectually intriguing biosciences into diversifying industries which produce useful biologicals from biocatalytic reactions to genetically modi ed bacteria, fungi, viruses, and plant, mammalian, and insect cells. Some advancements modify the genetic composition and expression of genes; others accelerate and adjust metabolic processes. In bioengineering sectors in particular, signi cant developments have been achieved in the expansion from laboratory to factory scale, and in technologies for the isolation, puri cation, and sterilization of end products. The creation of reliable systems of product quality and process control has been equally successful.
