ABSTRACT
In 2009, it was estimated that the global electricity production potential for onshore wind was 690 PWh/year [3]. The onshore wind potential for the United States alone is estimated to be 74 PWh/year, which is more than three times of the present global demand. Other researchers found a technical potential of 33 PWh for onshore wind and 284 PWh for photovoltaics in the United States [4]. Thus, with onshore wind energy alone or alternatively with photovoltaics alone, the United States could produce an amount of electricity that is greater than the current world electricity consumption.Many studies show that it is possible to produce 100% of the energy demand by renewable energy at the level of a country or of the world [5]. The authors of the different studies either avoid statements about the minimum time necessary for the change or give figures often ranging between 20 and 200 years. This article gives answers to the following three questions: (1) What time is industrially necessary for 100% renewable electricity? (2) What is the role of wind power therein? (3) How can this development in the world be accelerated? 32.2 SolarSuperState ConceptFor every state of the world, it is needed in the future to substitute all currently existing fossil electricity production with solar energy, wind energy or other kinds of renewable energy forms. With additional technologies it is possible for every state of the world to heat and cool buildings only with domestic renewable energies. With more technologies it is possible in the longterm to provide fuels for transport necessary to run the economy of a highly industrialised country. The SolarSuperState concept describes a state (country/region/city) that produces in its own territory all of its needed energy from renewable energy sources at least in the following sectors: • Electricity • Energy for heating and cooling buildings • Fuels for transport • Industrial process energy
The economy of a SolarSuperState is basically an electricity economy. In the future, applications can be based on electricity like heating and cooling of buildings by heat pumps and transportation with electricity or with fuels like hydrogen, methane and methanol. Hydrogen is produced with water and electricity. Methane and methanol can be manufactured from hydrogen and carbon dioxide from the air.In the future SolarSuperState, compared with today’s states, there will be less air pollution, no combustion of fossil fuels and no nuclear energy, therefore, no long-term economic downturn, no radioactive waste and no risk of nuclear power stations’ accidents, but millions of jobs (depending on the size of the population) in the energy business, the highest possible level of energy security and possibilities of participation in energy production for communities [6]. The SolarSuperState Association uses the name SolarSuperState for its annual competition, its award and for the general promotion of renewable energy. The name incorporates the word “state” because it relates to states, regions, or countries. “Solar” stands for energy coming from the sun, which appears in form of solar, wind, wave energy, biomass, etc.The fossil industry often blocks further growth of wind and solar energy in many countries. Therefore, an open discussion and political action to reduce the influence of the fossil electricity industry and to strengthen renewable energy sector are prere-quisites for a fast transition of a state into a SolarSuperState. Such processes have been neglected in many states by the national and international renewable energy associations. Only in recent years in some regions it has been demonstrated that 100% renewable energy supply is possible. The challenge is to extend such regional experiences to the state level.The SolarSuperState concept is based on eight key technologies: (1) Wind energy (2) Solar energy (3) Ensemble of energy storage technologies (4) Plus-energy building (5) Passive house (6) Heat pump (7) Renewable transport (train, car, bicycle, truck, ship)
The first three technologies of this list are sufficient (in terms of potential and speed) to substitute all fossil electricity industry. From the three solar energy technologies photovoltaics, thermo-electric, and solar thermal energy, only photovoltaics is especially relevant here. The next three technologies (4, 5, and 6) are needed additionally to reduce all fossil energy in the fields of heating and cooling of buildings and of industrial process heat. Here, solar thermal technologies play a crucial role. Also in the transport sector, renewable energy must replace fossil fuels.Other renewable energy technologies like hydropower, biomass, tidal, wave energy, deep geothermal energy will not be the most important sources of energy supply because they are limited in their potential or too slow compared to wind and solar energy. The priority applications of biomass are food, fodder, construction material, clothing material, furniture, paper and chemical industry. Some portion of biomass waste can be used to make electricity, heat or fuels. Biomass is easy and cheap to store and is useful for periods when solar and wind energy are not sufficient.The importance of the triangle, made by wind energy, solar energy and storage technologies, for the total and fast substitution of all fossil electricity industry is a realistic vision. The best portfolio of energy storage technologies depends on the situation of the country. Some countries already have sufficient storage capacity in use to make 100% national renewable electricity possible now (like Switzerland and Norway with their hydro capacities). 32.3 Global Status of Wind Energy and
Photovoltaics in December 2011The SolarSuperState Association wants to accelerate the change to 100% renewable energy by a competition for states. Every state is automatically participating in this SolarSuperState competition. A SolarSuperState Prize can be awarded to the winners of this annual competition. The cumulative installed capacity per capita is chosen as the criterion to compare different countries. The countries with less than one watt per capita cumulative installed wind power or photovoltaics are ranked in order of their population. Table 32.1 shows the rankings of wind energy and photovoltaics for the record date of 31 December 2011.11 Full ranking on the website www.solarsuperstate.com.
