ABSTRACT
In vitro methods for studying the kidney were in development as early as the late 19th century as a means to explore the physiology of the kidney and its subunits. In modern toxicology, these methods have led to the elucidation of specific mechanisms of action for numerous classes of renal toxicants. In vitro methods have helped to build an understanding of how metals, chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, cysteine conjugates, oxidants, and halogenated hydrocarbons cause kidney injury. The increased demand for in vitro systems has been driven by a number of scientific needs. Good in vitro models make mechanistic studies possible, provide alternatives to animal testing, act as high-throughput models for screening xenobiotics, and allow for the translation of toxicological data to human populations.
