ABSTRACT
Clinical presentation Cardiac failure in the elderly may present with the classic symptoms of exertional dyspnea, orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, but non-cardiac symptoms are also common. These include weakness, fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, confusion, depression and immobility. There are various precipitants to an acute episode of cardiac failure including tachy-and bradyarrhythmias, notably atrial fibrillation and sick sinus syndrome. Comorbidity such as anemia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, thyroid dysfunction or renal disease can all further impair an already reduced cardiac reserve.
