ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION Dopamine receptors have long been the target of pharmacological agents. The discovery in the 1950s that the dopamine antagonist chlorpromazine acts as a potent antipsychotic ushered in an age of psychopharmacology. Similarly, the development of the dopamine precursor levodopa (L-dopa) in the 1960s as a therapy for Parkinson’s disease (PD) revolutionized the management of this ill-
ness. However, shortly after the inception of these drugs it became clear that a significant side effect of these medications is the development of drug-induced movement disorders (DIMD). Movement disorders caused by dopamine antagonists include parkinsonism, tardive dyskinesias, and akathisia. Long-term use of L-dopa results in the development of dyskinesias in a majority of the patients with PD.
