ABSTRACT
Although self-directed learning is one of the concepts that has captured the attention of researchers and authors in adult education for a long time, there is still considerable theoretical and methodological confusion about it. Viewed as one of the main concepts in adult learning and/or the most typical form of adult learning, it has been the subject of inquiries on its nature, processes and characteristics, with many attempts at theory building and considerations of similar concepts in adult education and learning. There are a number of terms that are used by writers and researchers. Tough (1971) quoted 17 authors who use 12 different terms, while Hiemstra (1994) compared six main competing terms. The most used terms include: selfdirected learning, self-education (used mostly by scholars from Russia and other Slavic language areas), selforganized learning, self-planned learning, self-teaching, learning projects, autonomous learning, autodidaxy, independent study, open learning and so on. In earlier periods it was recognized, but neglected as a phenomenon not relevant from a scientific point
of view, until interest in it ‘exploded’ and it became almost a kind of ‘fashion’ in adult education research. Nowadays, a new interest in this phenomenon has emerged and new research issues have arisen, including the need for modern, adequate, fresh conceptualization, combined with continuous attempts at theory building. Kulich in 1970 (Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991) and Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) showed that self-
directed learning has a long history, and illustrated it with examples of famous personalities as self-directed learners, from classical Greece, Rome, renaissance Europe and colonial America. On the other hand, selfdirected learning among ‘common people’ in different historical periods has not been explored so much. Tröhler described several such examples in the context of informal learning in the middle ages (Tröhler, 2005). Early studies of self-directed learning go back to the nineteenth century, with Craik’s description (1840) of several self-learners, and Smiles’s book Self-help in 1859. Modern research started in 1961 with O’Houle: who described three groups of adult learners, divided according to their motivation to participate, and it is the third group – those motivated by the learning process itself – that could be characterized as self-directed learners. Systematic approaches to self-directed learning were developed by Knowles (1975) and Tough (1971).
In his book, Self-directed Learning, Knowles (1975) compared attributes of teacher-directed and self-directed learning (such as: the role of the learner’s experience, a subject-centred orientation of the learner vs a
problem-centred one, external vs internal incentives, etc.), also offering a kind of working guide, i.e. a set of learning resource exercises with recommendations in the form of steps for self-guided enquiry. This book presents the concept of self-directed learning as an essential component of the maturing process, highlighting the capacity and need to be self-directed as almost typical for adult learners, even if they are not well prepared for this type of learning. A ‘classical’ study, which also offered a conceptual framework for self-directed learning, was carried out
by Tough. He proved that a great deal of adult learning happens independently, outside institutions of formal education and in the form of learning projects. Some of the learning projects are aimed at an increase in new knowledge, insight or understanding; others at changes in attitudes, habits and emotional reactions. Adults undertake several learning projects a year (around 700 hours a year – 100 per project), although they are not always aware of them. Tough further defined the learning project as a series of shorter, connected episodes lasting not less than seven hours, where more than half of a person’s motivation is to gain and retain knowledge and skills for a minimum of two days. These episodes can happen in a variety of settings, e.g. in the library, classroom, kitchen, hotel or train, and the person might learn with a teacher, in a group or completely alone. Tough explained the complete phenomenon of adult learning using the ‘iceberg’ metaphor – the visible, smaller part happens within the organized forms of learning and education (such as courses and seminars), but some 80% is not visible and consists of learning planned, organized and guided by the person him/herself. For further development of research in the theory and practice of self-directed learning an annual
International Symposium on self-directed learning was established in 1987 by Long, playing an important role for many years. Different models for empirical research on self-directed learning were developed over that time. They
have been driven by various perspectives, and they have all looked at how to capture such complex phenomena through the means and methods of research models (Guglielmino – Self-directed Readiness Scale in 1978; Spear’s model, 1988; Cavaliere, 1992; Garrison, 1997; Conceptual PRO – Personal Responsibility Orientation model developed in 1991 by Brockett and Hiemstra). Brookfield’s criticism (1986) of earlier research was related to the approach whereby many phenomena
in adult education and learning are over-identified with self-directed learning, without an adequate theoretical base, but he also criticized it for methodological shortcomings. Transformational learning theory gave modern impetus to new approaches to self-directed learning.
