ABSTRACT
In speaking of societies in which harmony and forbearance are much in evidence, Colson observes that ‘some people live in what appears to be a Rousseauian paradise because they take a Hobbesian view of their situation: they walk softly because they believe it necessary not to offend others whom they regard as dangerous’ (Colson 1975: 37). Her remarks could well be applied to China. Traditionally, as Weber remarked: ‘The Confucian gentleman, striving simply for dignified bearing, distrusted others as generally as he believed others distrusted him’ (Weber 1951: 244). This lack of trust in the wider world beyond one’s immediate family has been made much of by Redding in analysing what he sees as the limits on growth of Chinese private enterprises. Among the Chinese, he argues, ‘you trust your family absolutely, your friends and acquaintances to the degree that mutual dependence has been established and face invested in them. With everybody else you will make no assumptions about their goodwill’ (Redding 1993: 66). Networking beyond the family (guanxi) relies upon establishing trust, but this trust is specific, limited to partners bound by personal obligations and not by any community of faith. Universalistic moral rules concerning protecting the welfare of all people are not as strong as those urging benevolence towards the circle of those with whom you are in frequent contact (Schwartz 1992: 39). Giving the same consideration to those beyond one’s primary groups – the small intimate face-to-face groups of family, friends and workplace – can be frowned upon as devaluing the worth of these primary groups. The result is a culture in which nepotism and favouritism is, if not condoned, at least regarded as, in many ways, understandable and natural.
