ABSTRACT
The Karmapa sect's political role in backing the kings of Tsang preceded the founding of the Gelukpa order. The villagers acted in unison in cases of complaints to the government against oppressive burdens imposed by the estates or, if they were directly under the government, against government taxes in kind or in service. The very existence of their status is an indication of the social mobility in the agricultural and nomadic communities. Polygamic marriages could not be maintained by force, and the relatively free popular attitude toward breaking marital relationships and engaging in other ones indicates a general social tolerance toward marital arrangements and sexual relations for both men and women. The advice and guidance provided by the lamas and/or monks were not based merely on an intellectual process or educational understanding but, in the minds of the devout, on spiritual guidance gained through meditation and divination.
