ABSTRACT
To counteract the negative developments-ones elicited in part by America's vulnerable energy situation-Moscow had available several instruments, including propaganda, diplomatic measures, military measures, economic aid and subversion. Whereas American publications stressed the Soviet threat to the Middle East-Gulf states, Soviet publications emphasized that the danger to those countries emanated not from Moscow, but from Washington. Soviet propaganda attempted to reinforce the already considerable anti-Americanism in the region in additional ways, and Iran was a key target in the respect. That country was explicitly referred to in the context of the assertion that America planned to intervene militarily in the Gulf region. In addition to exploiting the Iraqi-Iranian conflict, the hostage crisis and US-Israeli ties in order to reinforce anti-Americanism, Soviet propaganda attacked US naval operations and the use of military bases and facilities in the area. In addition to the use of propaganda, the Soviet Union employed diplomatic measures to offset American policy in the Middle East-Gulf region.
