Religious figural images on Byzantine lead seals as a reflection of visual piety during the Iconoclastic controversy *

The iconographic type of the Virgin Hodegetria was already an established and popular Marian image in various media before Iconoclasm, at least as early as the 6th century. The Virgin Kyriotissa type, too, was a long-standing Marian representation by the time of the Iconoclastic outbreak and was found in various media. The image of the Virgin Hodegetria type on the imperial seal of either Constantine IV or Leontios must have had particular significance for the emperor who issued it, because it was a break with the previous imperial sphragistic imagery of the Herakleian dynasty, the Virgin with the Christ Child held in front. The extremely low number of iconographic seals issued by military officials may reflect either a general practice of military officials not employing seals with religious imagery or a deliberate aniconic preference in light of official, imperial Iconoclastic policies.