Introduction

The Italian Wars were a watershed in the history of Italy, of Europe, and of warfare. The Italian state system was a complex one. Alongside the five largest, ‘regional’ states–Naples, Milan, the republics of Florence and Venice and the Papal States–were many lesser ones, including the republics of Siena, Lucca and Genoa and lordships ranging in size and importance from the territory of Duke of Ferrara to tiny Imperial fiefs of a few square miles. The major Italian states and their lesser allies and satellites were usually grouped into leagues, generally presented as defensive but in reality vehicles for competing ambitions, for promoting as much as containing conflicts. Of the major Italian states, Venice had the best-organized army, based on long-term, in some cases lifelong, contracts with condottieri and infantry constables. The kings of France and Spain and the emperor expected a greater degree of commitment from Italian lords, especially if condotte were part of a political agreement or alliance.