ABSTRACT
Even before the end of the cold war, a greater focus within the policies of international relations was placed upon the development of regions rather than alliances, and the methods by which these regions established their own political, economic, and strategic identity. Since its creation in 1993, the European Union (EU) has continued to provide one of China’s most visible multilateral challenges, as Beijing has had to adjust its European policies to incorporate both Union and country-level decision-making procedures, a process further complicated by the lack of a single cohesive EU foreign, and often economic, policy. China has been enthusiastic about increasing political, educational, and cultural ties with EU states. From a strategic viewpoint, China and Russia began to develop similar policies toward concerns over possible Western intervention in civil conflicts such as in Syria in 2011–2, and both states have upgraded their military cooperation and coordination since President Xi took office.
